The old English period and primarily the Anglo-Saxon literature.

The old English period and primarily the Anglo-Saxon literature.

The story of England and the story of English literature begin even before the English began to inhabit the island of England. The initial tussle was between the Romans and Celts and the Celts original inhabitants of England. And later on as the many other invading tribes begun to trouble the Celts they asked for help from the Angles, Saxons and the Jutes. But we also begun to see that they did not just helped the Celt drive out the other invading tribes, but they just completely displaced the Celts and overtook the island of Britain and since then England is also known as the land of the Anglo-Saxons. And now in case you are wondering whatever happened to the Celts who were driven out from England, they were the ones who the Celts they begun to settle in these different places such as Cornwall, Wales, Ireland and Scotland. And we also know that the Celtic languages which are in minority today they are Cornish, Welsh, Irish and Scottish Gaelic as spoken in this, respective provinces. And as we come back to this story of story of England, we find that the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, they began to have settlements in island and later on we also find the jutes get completely displaced and the land gets known in the name of Angles and Saxons alone. But this was not a very uneventful period, during this time we find the Danes, the Vikings and all of them invading England at some point or the other. Because of that we have the Danelaw which we saw in the previous section and also some influence of the Norse language due to the continuous invasion of the Vikings we also saw that. The Vikings did not leave a very lasting influence because their policy was mostly that of hit and run, they did not want to have permanent settlements over them. And in between other interesting thing happens, Christianity also finds fertile soil in the land of the Anglo-Saxons by 597 A.D. We find that the then King Ethelbert converts to Christianity and there by leaving a long legacy of church and Christianity. And the Anglo-Saxon period comes to an end with the Norman Conquest which also we noted in the previous section. To continue situating the significance of Anglo-Saxon period and old English literature let us take a quick look at this historical timeline which is been given here, we find that there is a gradual transition from the Celtic period towards the Anglo-Saxons in terms of linguistic influences we have the influence of Latin, then the influence of old Norse and significant Norse elements, which is built into the language. And eventually we find that the transition moves on towards later centuries about which we will take a look at later on.

We also note the significant timeline of old English period or Anglo-Saxon literature is a history of maybe 500 to 800 years. And also if you take a look at this the other more detailed map of literary periods we find that this entire story of 500 to 1000 years or maybe 800 years is it takes only a short span in terms of timeline. When you scale it up to the entire literary periods it occupies only a very little space in terms of literary output in terms of literary and non-literary events as well. So let us begin this discussion on old English period by taking a look at what has constituted this disproportional timeline. many historians have got different theories about this disproportional telling of history and some of the major reasons we would try to address over here, the first one being that there was very little written in the first 800 years and even when there was things getting written, very little has survived into the posterity. And in terms of this session is made in terms of quantity, quality and character of the literature, which is survived or of the literature of which there is some evidence of. And also there is this assumption that even when things were written on maybe a lot of them were lost because there is a also this strong conviction that maybe mostly oral literature oral tradition in place so that may be very little was written down or perhaps there were lost copies and however whatever literature lacks strong evidence, the historians have not included as part of old English literature. And the other important things was that this was much before the age of proper documentation before the age of print, so mostly the manuscripts were there in place, so it also made it all the more difficult to preserve them due to various conditions. And the most important reason that many historians identify of late is that of linguistic difficulties because the old English tongue was not really English, it was mostly a Germanic tongue and we would also note much later when we take a look at the language that Anglo-Saxon tongue or old English literature or old English tongue was more like a distant Germanic foreign tongue. Because of that there was hardly any resemblance to modern English language and for the same reason even when the text were not from the old English period, they had to be translated into the modern English in order for the language to make sense or for it to be put under any kind of linguistic or literary scrutiny, so this perhaps is constituted to this disproportionate timeline. And moving on which period falls under this old English period or the old Anglo-Saxon period, this period is from 499 to 1066 A.D.and a little bit about a the term Anglo-Saxon and old English literature.

In this course we would notice that we will be notice these terms almost simultaneously quite interchangeably too. But however, there are some historians who are of the opinion that the term old English literature is more politically correct than that of the old than that of the Anglo-Saxons and also there are these historians who argue that the term Anglo-Saxons could should be used in order to emphasis the cultural heritage that has been handed down to England and English literature.So in this old English period the literature was mostly oral in nature and in terms of written prose and poetry there is only a handful of text which have survived and there is no reason to assume that a lot more was actually written because the oral traditions seems to be the more dominant one during those times. And if we try to analyse the material that has been handed down to us, we can also note that the subject matter broadly falls into three major kinds, one is that of religion this includes Pagan religion and also Christian subject matter. And there is a discussion of war because the old English period in not just in England and also in most of the other European nations before the medieval period was mostly a story of war conquest and territorial disputes so on and so forth. And so that quite explains why the subject matter was predominantly about war and conquest, and also thirdly it was also about trials of daily life. So in that sense the old English literature whatever is available to us, it becomes very important for us to understand the social life of the old English period as well.

Moving on, let us do a very quick survey of some of the text which are continuing to be discussed in terms of old English literature. The first one and perhaps the most important one is a text named Beowulf and incidentally the text was never named as Beowulf, but the later historians they have attributed this name to the text based on the name of the hero of the text. So this was also the only text to survive the ravages of time. In fact, this text is perhaps the only old English text which is found in a single manuscript, but that is tough to say that the manuscript was received without any damage, partly it was also damaged and fire. So whatever translations that we have in the contemporary are based on all of these limitations put together. It was of anonyms origin, the authorship is not known at all, but there is an assumption that maybe it was a monk or someone else with an academic inclination who authored this piece which mostly in words and there is an obvious reason to assume this because church and monasteries were the center of education and they center of culture during those periods. So the clergy and the clerics were mostly the ones associated with education and literacy. So maybe it was order by a monk and also the subject matter is quite religious and allegoric in nature. And there is also this assumption that this heroic epic as it has come to be known as, this was perhaps picked up by some Northumbrian poet at a later time and he had fashioned it into a proper kind of an epic. So there are these various disputes about the authorship about this peace and who wrote it or whether a group of people together contributed to it so on and so forth. And in terms of the subject matter, this is about the mighty feats of a hero named Beowulf and also this is important that it gives a glimpse into the past in terms of the life during a those times, they believe systems that the people predominantly had, the kind of relationships that they had with one another,etc. And there is also this debate about whether the character Beowulf actually existed or not, one is not yet sure of it but the kind of this that he talks about also gives an assumption that perhaps this was modeled on great warrior who lived during those times. And also the author of the Beowulf, the author of this work Beowulf has also come to be called as the Beowulf poet even leading one to assume that perhaps this was even written by someone named Beowulf who also chooses to give the hero the name of his own.

When one analyzes the subject matter, there is also this some interesting details which are highlighted like it is written by a poet who was living among Christian people whose ancestors were known to have been Pagan. So we find that Christian and the pagan elements being discussed in detail in Beowulf and some historians are also of the opinion that the Christian element was later attributed to Beowulf given the lean age of Christianity which has been left behind from the Anglo-Saxon and the later time onwards. And an interesting thing about the discussions and the literary critics on Beowulf is that Beowulf was in fact the discussions on Beowulf was in fact revived only in the twentieth century particularly in 1936 based on a lecture delivered by J.R.R. Tolkein. The essay was called Beowulf the monsters and the critics, this is by far the most famous critical and historical work on Beowulf and in this work Tolkein argues that Beowulf should be seen more as a poem and less as a historical document because seeing a work like Beowulf as a historical document alone takes away the literary attributes of the work. And what is this Beowulf about? And critics are of the opinion that this is perhaps the earliest text which allowed the audience to suspend their disbeliefs and listen to a narration. And this narration is basically about the tale of Beowulf, the dominant character and the protagonist who distilled to become the king of Geats, Geats is a Swedish prominent tribe during those times and Beowulf the assumption is that he was a Scandinavian warrior. These details are unearth from the analysis of the works from a later periods, and what forms the major topic is about the three major trails that Beowulf was force to undergo during his lifetime. And these three major trials also incidentally demonstrate Beowulf fearlessness and strength as a leader. These are the things which lead historians into assuming that perhaps Beowulf himself was a the Beowulf poet himself was a leader who wanted to add on to some leadership qualities to his own life through this kinds of narration. So these are three major trials, the storyline begins with this battle with a monster named Grendel and later on and it is followed by an attack by this monster Grendel’s mother and years later the hero Beowulf is again confronted by a Dragon. So all of these different trials demonstrate the various ways in which his skills as a warrior and his skills as a leader get displayed. And this work has also been extensively analyzed for its symbolism and allegory and but also some of the critics are also of the opinion that the figure of the monster or the figure of the dragon need not be analyzed in a more figurative or metaphorical sense because given the old English period and their believed system the pagan believe system on dragons, monsters and many supernatural beings. Or maybe they did not really allegorically represent anything and also given the fact that this was written for a set of people who believed in their minds that all of these supernatural things existed there was no need for any other allegorical kind of representation.

And also it in an interesting feature to remember that Beowulf was made into a 2007 movie and this also talks a lot about the contemporary interest in the story of a Beowulf and also how this could have been adapted into a very modern visual representation. And drawing your attention to the script the old Germanic the old English script which is mostly Germanic in nature, here are the original manuscript letters and this is a transliteration based on the modern letters. But whichever one we take a look at, we find that this quite distinct from modern English and there is hardly any resemblance to the way English is written or the vocabulary or the sentence structure is fashioned in the contemporary. So these are also some of the difficulties in accessing the text Beowulf unless it is translated into modern English.

And if you talk about old English poetry in general, these two names of Caedmon and Cynewulf they were mostly from the northern part these two names dominate the discussion and there is every reason to assume that the poetry was written soon after the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon into Christianity because there are lot of Christian elements built into the discussion into the subject matter, into the treatments so on and so forth.So mostly the themes where of biblical and religious nature and however at the same time some of the allegories are quite contested because one is not sure whether the Christian themes where attributed to the later on or whether the authors themselves were the authors themselves had a strong believe in the Christian system. And it is also considered that Caedmon who dies in 680 and Cynewulf who was born around 720 730 actual date of death was not yet known. It is also considered that both of them saw poetry as a divine gift and these were the things which were hider to the unknown to the Anglo-Saxon life time. These where the things hider to unknown to the Anglo-Saxon period, so this predominance of these two characters also gives us a lot of evidence into believing that may be other works and other poets also who were living and writing during that time, but there is very little evidence to prove in terms of manuscripts or in terms of oral traditions that have survived into the posterity. And one of the works of Cynewulf is of most importance where he talks about a wandering person and a lover of pleasure who is converted by a vision of the cross. In this sense, the dominance of Christian’s symbols in dominance of Christianity interfering with the day to day life about changing the life styles, changing the perspective, changing the value system of a society and individual all of these things become quite predominant in the analysis of some of the works.

And Deor is another important poem of the manuscript of which who survived into posterity. This is a poem of just 42 lines and the subject matter is quite interesting, it is about the complaints of a minstrel who after years of service to his lord was replaced by a rival. So this also throws a lot of light into the daily life style of old English times and we also get a glimpse to many famous legends of the old Germanic times also leading us to believe that maybe they were a set of people who loved to listen to folklores, to legends and also to these great mighty feats of warriors, etcetera. And Deor as a poem is significantly important because it brings together a lot of elements which where uncommon during the Anglo-Saxon times. So in this we find a combination of a subject matter along with a very personal and elegiac theme and this was not very common during those times to bring in a personal touch to the literature or to the worst form which was available then.

The other significant writing was “The dream of the Rood” again a short poem and this is a very predominant example of religious poetry that existed during those times and particularly about the dream of the rood Pat Rogers describes it as a vivid complex bold and brilliant piece. And this sort of complexity was not available to any of the other writings of those times and here also it is important to note that it is of anonymous origin the authorship is not known. And this work “The dream of the Rude” primarily talks about the event of Crucifixion in a very symbolic way and the entire story is also narrated by a participant who witness the act of Crucifixion. The roods symbolizes Christ’s cross and in this story we find that in this poem we find that a cross appears in a dream and in the cross as a figurative symbolic element it begins to address the dreamer himself. So in that sense the religious theme is very dominant throughout in most of the literature of the Anglo-Saxon period.

How have we begun to access most of these works, so at this point it is important to draw your attention to what is now known as the Exeter book. This was a kind of an anthology of Anglo-Saxon poetry which came into being around 970 A.D. roughly about sometime during the 10th century and the term Exeter is from is because the set of anthology was given to a person of anonymous origin to Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofric. So one does not know who has actually put this together and who had compile this together, but historical evidence is only talk about a certain Bishop Leofric handing over this anthology to Exeter Cathedral for preservation and we do find the church here act as a center which preserves cultural and literary artifacts for the future because there was no other institution available of this stature and of this kind, which could intervene the daily life and cultural life of a people then. And the Exeter book is also known to be the largest collection of old English literature and UNESCO has identified it as one of the world’s principle cultural artifacts. We do find that the arrangements is not very systematic they are the works quite have has early arranged and also there is an assumption that maybe the Exeter book was originally copied from another collection that existed but there is very little evidence again to prove that. And there are also lots of disputes about whether the contents are largely secular or Christian, but there is evidence to prove that perhaps there is also a mix of both secular and Christian elements.

So what where the contents of the Exeter book? It had a few major poems such as the Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Wife’s Lament, The Husband’s Message and The Ruin and there are also 95 riddles and some say almost 100 riddles which are even now considered to being position of considerable literary skill. And there is also this thing known as The Rhyming Poem which consist a set of gnomic verses gnome in Greek means moral aphorism or a proverb. So there is set of proverbs or norms which were brought together in the form of alliterative verse. So these were the major contents of the Exeter book and let us take a quick look at couple of these poems which are considered to be quite noteworthy, and The Wanderer and The Seafarer both these poems are considered almost as old as Beowulf and they had significant religious allegory in place, they were considered quite similar to one another. In terms of content also they were quite similar in terms of treatment also there was a dominant religious element built into it. The Wanderer is in fact about the lament about a solitary man who was once a happy person living a very joyful life, we find his life undergoing a transition after the lords death, the lord means a master during those times and he laments about the passing away of the earlier time of happiness, friendship and companionship that he had with his master. The Seafarer is the is the structurally it is like a monologue of an old sailor, he talks about loneliness and hardships of a life at sea, but at the same time he continues to be in aware of fascination that the life the adventurous life in sea offers. So this is been the scene is quite allegorical and quite religious comparing the daily struggles and the life adventures with that of the Christian life or the struggles during Christian life.

And moving on let us also take a look at what constituted Anglo-Saxon prose. The discussion on the presence of Anglo-Saxon prose begins only from the reign of King Alfred the great about whom we heard quite in detail in the previous section. King Alfred was a West Saxon king who ruled from 871 to 99 he was not just a warrior, but he was also patent of art and literature. We find that he had supervised many translations during those times; he had instituted the Anglo-Saxon chronicle about which we will hear shortly. And there is also enough reason to assume that he is quite a learner person with a passion for art and literature, we also find him learning the Latin at a later point of time in order to facilitate the translations from Latin to the vernacular. And he is considered to be the first one to put the vernacular to systematic use. And we find his contribution being the most significant in terms of prose, he not only encourage this works to be written but he also contributed to them himself. And he is credited to have been translated Venerable Bede’s Ecclesiastical history from Latin to vernacular tongue to old English tongue. And in his own words it is recorded that he wanted to translate from Latin into the language we all understand, but again there are disputes about whether king Alfred himself translated the work Bede’s work from Latin to English or whether he just inspired and encouraged a group of people to undertake this mission. Having said that, what exactly is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle? This is perhaps the most important document of the Anglo-Saxon times that we have today and as David Daiches describes this work, it is a series of annals which commence with outline of English of English history from Julius Caesar’s invasion to the middle of the fifth century and continues to 1154 A.D. And the earliest records of the Anglo-Saxon chronicle is from 60 B.C. onwards even before the times of king Alfred, but king Alfred is said to have put all of this together and compile this into a proper chronicle. The latest entry is from 1154 the chronicle ends with the death of King Stephen.

This chronicle as soon as it was compiled and the periodic addition to it, it is said that it was distributed to the monasteries across England, as we mention before monasteries has to had a very important role to play in the Anglo-Saxon times in the cultural and the religious life of England. And the fragments of these original manuscript are now available in the British library for it is also a kind of a an interest for many historians and linguists. And it is said that about 7 or 9 manuscripts from those times are available now but none of them are original, the original is was perhaps lost in fire or due to some other natural calamity and it is generally said that the original manuscript which compile all of these events it was created by king Alfred during his time. This also shows his passion for not just art and literature, but also a passion for a sense of history to be compiled and the need for documentation which would make things easier for the posterity. So in that sense King Alfred was a very important intervening figure in the history of Anglo-Saxon period. And it is in this work that we also find about the story of Cynewulf and Cyneheard perhaps another poet, so there is also a lot of historical evidence for the existence of poets such as Cynewulf. And this document becomes important in enduring a kind of continuity into the middle English period because we find that when certain ways the Anglo-Saxon chronicle it pans over a vast amount of time from B.C. 60 till about 1154 in that sense there is a way in which we have a document which enables us to seamlessly enter the middle English period and also identify certain continuities which are present not just in pros, but also in the cultural and religious life of England.

It is very important to highlight the role of church and Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England. You may have noted right from the beginning of the discussion that church and religion is at the center of almost all the discussions. So it is very difficult to even begin to talk about the story of England without talking about a history of church, the history of monasteries and the religious life from the Anglo-Saxon or even from the Celtic period onwards. David Daiches has got this thing to say about the role of Christianity. With the triumph of Christianity, all cultures were ecclesiastical culture and ecclesiastical culture was based on Latin. This is perhaps the best way in which one can summarize the old English period and the story as we know begins with the conversion of England to Christianity in 597 A.D. and we also note that soon after that there is a significant development of ecclesiastical institutions particularly monasteries which continue to serve as a center of learning a center of culture center of dissemination of knowledge so on and so forth. Also, later on we will begin to note that the church even serves as a center of performance and in that sense the earliest drama also get enacted in churches. And also the role of the Clerics caring on cultural tradition of the periods is also quite noteworthy and so much so that David Daiches sums up like this. The man of culture belongs first of all to church and the impressive claims of secular literature had not yet begun to be asserted. In the following sections we will also begin to see how in the middle English period there is a gradual transition from the religious literature towards a secular literature, and also as Daiches points out in one of his introductions about the man of culture belonging to church we find that the same church becomes a stifling element in terms of art and literature at a later point of time. So all of this transition the cultural transition the religious transition and the literary transition are quite important when we begin to map the journey of literature across ages.

Thank you and look forward to see you in next class.

Starting Point: The Anglo-Saxon Period

Starting Point: The Anglo-Saxon Period

Welcome to today’s session of the course -  History of English language and literature.

In today’s session we begin to look the starting points of English literary history. In that sense, the discussion is going to be mostly on how and when the history of English literature began. So let us try and locate the beginning in terms of a socio-political history. So this is how these early inhabitants of England if we try to give a chronological and sequential sense of it. They were initially the Celts were also Brythons and Gaels, they were initially the Celts which included the Brythons and the Gaels in fact incidentally the name Britain has emerged from the tribe called Brythons. And the Celts inhabited England up to 55 B.C. and we find a Roman Conquest happening from 55 B.C. till about 407 A.D. then the Anglo-Saxon Invasion happened from 407 A.D. and last until the 787 A.D. And then the Viking Invasions which is also continuation of the Anglo-Saxon period this happens from 787 A.D. to 1066 A.D. and with 1066 A.D. we find the beginning of the Norman Conquest and also the end of the old English period.

 So we try and classify this period I have coin an acronym to make you remember the sequential order of various inhabitants in the island of England C.R.A.V. N. Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and the Normans. So in certain ways some of the historians as we noted in the earlier lecture, they are there is lot of debate about the starting point of English literary history. Some argue that the English literary history can only begin from 1066 A.D. onwards with the Norman Conquest. But some are also of the opinion that we need to trace back the history from the Anglo-Saxon times onwards because that is where the old English literature is located and it is very important to get a sense of national heritage and the starting point of the story of England and story of literature and some are of the opinion that one need to go back from the time of the Celtic inhabitants onwards.

So here we begin the story of England and the story of English literature from the time of the Celtic migration to this island that we now know as England. So from the fifth century onwards, we find massive migration of Celts and Gaels to this particular island and we also note that this island was repeatedly invaded by Romans because Rome world’s most dominant empire and the most dominant military force of that time. But this was not a very aggressive kind of invasion because we find that by 55 B.C. and later by the first century A.D. Romans are quite successful in establishing a system of governance in this Celtic England. And this was not through any violent or aggressive means because there is lot evidence to show that there was a kind of peaceful coexistence between the Celts and the Romans during that time. In fact, their military camps were not really the camps of the later nature, the military camps lead to the emergence of towns mostly Romanized towns in England and they also ensured that a good infrastructure was in place. So in that sense the military presence helped a lot in maintaining peace in the island of England during the Celtic times.

So what where the implications of this?This the details of the influence of Latin language and later on how Christianity made a comeback even after the Romans had left England, all of these we shall be taking a detail look at, when we talk about the implications of when we talk about the evolution of language from the Celtic period onwards.

What is very important for us to note at this point is that the original inhabitants of England this island that we now know as England were the Celts. So in that sense, the story of English begins even before the arrival of the English people at a later point of time form the Anglo-Saxon time onwards.

So the Anglo-Saxon period which is also known as the old English period, this begins after the Romans. So at the outsight it is important to note that the term England the nation gets the name from ANGLE-LAND, which later evolved into ENGLAND.

So we begin with the Anglo-Saxon period after the withdrawal the Roman legions from the land of England. Why where the Romans forced to leave? This was and in fact they had a very practical reason to withdraw their legions from the island of England. Visigoths a very violent Germanic invading tribe they were attacking Rome and Rome had to withdrawal its legions from England and in order to defend its own home soil. So we find that by A.D. 407 all the Roman legions are withdrawn from Britain and at this point we find that curiously enough England is in very vulnerable stage, they are open to attack, they are defenseless because they do not have the Celts, did not have any kind of army to defend themselves. . They heavily relayed on the protection and on all kinds of guidance which they had been receiving from the Roman army. So as we have noted earlier this peaceful coexistence also had offer a lot of protection to the Celts because those where the times when the invading tribes could come and land on any fertile soil and they could even use up the land and over through the original inhabitants from any land. So  the Celts received a lot of protection from all of these attacks due to the presence of the Roman army. So once they leave, they are under attack and we find these sets of tribes from different areas invading them. And the two important of those tribes where the Picts and Scots who arrives in the land of England from the north and from also from Ireland. So we find that England is under the severe attack at this point of time, in fact it is at this juncture that they Angles, Saxons and the Jutes arrived in order to protect England from the impending attack of the Picts and the Scots.

So historians many historians feel that the Angles, Saxons and the Jutes together arrived in England initially as mercenaries from the eastern coast of Europe and they were quite welcomed in the beginning by the Celts because the Angles, Saxons and the jutes also offered a kind of defense, against invading tribes Picts and Scots. So in that sense Celts in fact, made a very strategic political mistake they were using the help of one set of invading tribes to defend themselves against another set of invading tribes. So we find that over a period of time the Angles, Jutes and the Saxons who arrived from this eastern cost of Europe, they come and begun to settle in this island find them quite spread across the land of England across Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and Wessex. So there is a clear domination of all of these tribes put together Angles, Jutes and Saxons in this island of Britain.

So when the Angles, Saxons and Jutes where invading England, was there any resistance against the Anglo-Saxons? we shall be giving an answer to this very shortly. And as we move on it is important to note that these were invading Germanic tribes, this information is very important at the outset in order to understand how Germanic inflections where built into English language at a later stage. So they the original inhabitants the Celts who were living with the support of the Romanized army, they are now being driven to the mountains areas and Wales. So we find that as and when the Angles, Saxons and Jutes defend the Celts against the attack of Picts and Scots, they also end up driving out the original inhabitants of the island. And so this was in fact to know after that what follows is a national migration of the Anglo Saxons into the island of Britain this some historians feel that there is mostly an invasion and partly a migration. But however, from this point of time we note that the Celts are no longer seen in the area of Britain, but they have been completely displaced and they have been completely won over by the Anglo-Saxons. So what made this possible? In the sense, that why the Angle, Saxons and Jutes coming over to England and overthrowing the native population and also establishing their settlements over there. Many historians have given various reasons for this, but some of the more convincing reasons are about the fertile soil that England had at that point of time. And it was also considered quite safe for than rest of the Europe because in the Europe had not emerged into this civilized the nation state that it is now comprised of.

It was mostly under attack by many invading tribes so all these tribes where on the lookout for a safe place where they could build their civilization and also lead a peaceful life through agriculture. So England offered almost all of these things, since England was mostly an island it also offered a protection from many of these invading tribes. So we find the Anglos, Saxons and jutes settling in this island and at a later point we even find that we hear only about the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes are no were to be found in later stage. At this point it is also the time for us to give an answer to the question whether there was any kind of resistance offered when the Anglo-Saxons begun their attack.

So this is a time to perhaps introduce this figure of King Arthur. The historicity of King Arthur is much debated, he said have lived during the 5th and the early 6th century B.C. and he said to have united the Celtic inhabitants of that time. And it also said that he had lead defense of Britain against the Anglo-Saxons invaders and obviously he ends up losing it as well. We find lot of legends and folklores about King Arthur in mostly in the Medieval histories and also at later point we find that specially in the 1130’s we find the Geoffrey we find this writer Geoffrey of Monmouth creating a literary persona of King Arthur. Well at the same time, whether King Arthur actually lived or whether this is just a fictional creation is a much debated and a much contested issue of literary history. And some even argue that may be he is half forgotten Celtic det who is worshiped during those times because we do not find any mention of King Arthur in the Anglo-Saxon chronicle which is perhaps the most important historical document of the Anglo-Saxon times and we do not find him being mentioned later in B.D’s ecclesiastical history of the English people either. So in that sense, one is not very sure of the historicity of the king Arthur, but at the same time he the story is about King Arthur offer a lot of insights about the life during the Celtic times and also the life of England even before the English people or the Anglo-Saxons arrived in England.

So what did the Anglo-Saxons do after they arrived in this island? we find that they had in mind a proper kind of a settlement so they went on to establish 5 kingdoms which are also known as the Heptarchy, the 5 kingdoms being Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex and Kent. And in terms of the language that evolved during that time, there were four main dialects, Northumbrian which was indecently also the first one to produce any kind of oral literature and there was Mercian, Kentish and West Saxon. And later on we find that West Saxon get more supremacy than the other because of the political supremacy of Wessex and also because this was the language that King Alfred about whom we will be hearing about very shortly. And this being the language of political supremacy and the language that King Alfred used and we find the language the dialect West Saxon becoming more important than all the others. And we also note that many of the extend text we have in the contemporary they are also preserved in this italic of West Saxon.

And in terms of literature which we shall be taking a detail look at it in later sessions, poetry flourished mostly in the north and Prose was available mostly in the south. And when we talk about literature of these times it was not always about written literature, but it was also about the oral traditions which were prevailing during those times.

 So this is also perhaps the time to take a look at who king Alfred the great was. He is always mentioned as King Alfred the great in literary and political history, he was a king of Wessex was the most important one but also Wessex was kind of a leader who could bring together all the other kingdoms and the provinces. So we find King Alfred being King of Wessex from 871 to 899 and he in fact successfully could unite the rest of the kingdoms and rest of the provinces under his supremacy. And he was very important in the political history of England because he had lead the British army against the Viking invasions.

Vikings were a group of very ruthless and very violent invaders who were quite dreaded during that time we find that they were usually always associated with war, with conquest and their violence was quite notorious during that time. So Britain being this land which was very fertile, which was safe which was also quite a fertile land in establishing proper kind of settlements. Vikings continuously invaded Britain, we find that during the Anglo-Saxon period itself the Vikings invaded twice, one in 787 and the second one in 866, there is a third one about which we shall be hearing quite shortly. And in 866 we find that a Viking army had descended in this area of East Anglia and it also advanced to Wessex, but we find that king Alfred had successfully driven out all the Vikings from that area because he could unite kingdoms all the kingdoms against the attack of the Vikings. And if you note the all the kingdoms were quite aware of the threat that the Vikings had posed to them, so in that sense it was easier as well for king Alfred to unite them politically and also come up with an army to attack. And in the available records later on we find that though King Alfred was primarily the king of Wessex, he styles himself as a king of the Anglo-Saxons because there is no other figure that we see in the old English period was capable of uniting all the kingdoms together and who was capable of assuming this political and other kinds of status that serves a king. So he not only united England, but he also had given a new code of conduct for them to abide with and he is also the one who encouraged education art, literature, etcetera during the old English period.

So meanwhile there are these other kinds of development that happened politically, in 876 we find that Britain falls into the hands of Danes for a brief time and this is Danes were the group of tribes that attacked England from primarily from Denmark and Norway. And there were many invasions from 1003 till 1013 and during this time we find that the Danes end up occupying most of the land and Britain and here we can see in the map that most of Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbia all had fallen into the hands of the Danes. So this also leads to something that we now known as Danelaw, Danelaw emerged in the areas that were occupied by the Danes. So in fact, the after king Alfred we do not even find any kind of a single person who was capable of uniting the all Anglo-Saxons together. So this had also may be Anglo-Saxons and the land of Britain quite vulnerable to a lot of attack. But though the Danes was successful in establishing a code of conduct, establishing what we now call as the Daneslaw in almost half of Britain. We find that they did not have any worthy successors so at a later point of time, we also note that the Danish rule and the prevalence of the Danes Daneslaw ends by 1066. It is of much curiosity and interest to know that some of the legal terms survived from the Daneslaws period has survived into the modern English as well.

These details we shall be taking a look at when we talk about the revolution of language from the old English period onwards. So what exactly mark the end of Anglo-Saxon period, it was certainly not the Danish occupation, there was another bigger event which had to follow after that and this also noted the end of not just the end of Anglo-Saxon period but we also simultaneously find the end of the Viking invasions and end of Viking age as well. And from 1066 A.D. with the Norman Conquest we find not just England, but also Europe entering a new phase in history in literature so on and so forth because most of this invading tribes we do not here about them from this point onwards. So this is how the turn of events were like, in 1066 A.D.

There was initially this battle of Stamford which in which England successfully defeated Norwegian army, Norwegian were also a kind of invading tribes who could also be classified among the Vikings. And the battle of Stamford was successfully defended by the then Danish king and but at the same time we find that this success was very short lived because in less than three weeks there was an attack from the Normans and in this England gets defeated and this changes the history of England forever. And many historians feel that England was quite unprepared for this attack because they had just survived the war and they were they did not have enough time to come with the resources or even try and prepare for an attack against the Normans. So Norman Conquest is also known as the battle of Hastings this marks the end of the Anglo-Saxon age and it began it marked the beginning of the Norman rule and French influence in England. So this is how Norman Conquest happened, it happened in 1066 A.D. saying that England was quite weak under the Dane Danish ruler as we noted earlier the Danish were not worthy of preserving their throne because the successors where quite weak.

So William the Conqueror from Normandy in France, he identified that there is a potential through which he could became the king of England. So he launches this attack from France William of Normandy, he arrives in Kent which is also known as Hastings he arrives from Normandy in France and he defeated Harold Godwinson the then Danish ruler. Incidentally, he also happens to be the last Anglo-Saxon king that we hear of because the death of Harold Godwinson and also Norman Conquest marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule. And this event is very important politically, geographically and also linguistically because from then on from 1066 A.D. with the Norman Conquest we begun to see a Norman French influence on England.

We find that the Germanic influence that the Anglo-Saxons had brought in earlier it begins to fade away and the Norman French influence begin to stay on in that sense French also becomes the official language displacing the old English language of the Anglo-Saxons and we also find this event marking in end of the Anglo-Saxon dominance in all ways. So which is why historians debate a lot about which could be the starting point of English history and English literature whether we begin talking about the Anglo-Saxon period or do we begin talking about the Norman conquest onwards. But in this course we have we have given you attention to the old English literature as well and also we have marked the ways in which this transition has been enabled after the Norman Conquest. So just to make this little easier for you, there are this set of events that leaded to Norman Conquest in 1066 A.D. which would also enable to us to understand there was no way in which the Anglo-Saxon could have a resisted the invasion of the Normans.  On 20th September, we find this battle of Fulford happening there are lot of these as we mentioned earlier itself, there are lot of these invading tribes were continuing to attack Britain because it was fertile land also because Britain was safer then Europe. On 25th September again in 1066 itself we find the battle of Stamford Bridge where Harold defeats the invading Norwegian tribe and he is successful over here. But at the same time within three days we find that William of Normandy, he lands in this province known as Pevensey and though Harold and his army comes to know about this there is very little time for him to organize an attack and come all the way to the south to launch an attack against William of Normandy’s army. And we find that gradually by 14th October there is a battle there is this battle of Hastings which happens and William successfully out do’s Harold in all ways because there was not enough time to again come up with an army after this battle of Stamford on 25th September. So we do find that there is very little time and very little resources available to launch another attack

And as we move on to see the other turn of events, by mid-October William is repulsed and we also find that by the end of October all the English leaders they submit to the authority of William of Normandy and by late October we find there is this one a province which was descending under this ruler Stigand, we find him also submitting after this battle of Wallingford. And by the end of December by the end of 1066 A.D. we find the inevitable happening William of Normandy is crowned as the king of Britain. And this also marks the beginning of the Normal Conquest and the beginning of the Norman French influence into English culture, English language, English literature, English social life and almost everything that has come to define England from the time onwards. So as we come to the end of today’s session it is very important for us to note that the battle of Hastings or the Norman Conquest of 1066 mark the beginning of Middle English period. And this is of supreme importance to our understanding because in this certain way the history of English literature also as some historians argue it begins properly with the beginning of the Middle English period.

But however, as we noted earlier on it, language and literature began to evolve from the old English period onwards. So in that sense we also need to take a closer look at the kind of literature that had begun to emerge from the old English period onwards. So in the next lecture we shall be taking a look at the poetry and prose that began to emerge during the old English period, which will also get a clearer understanding about how literature was fashioned during that times and also how literature serve as a window to understand the various socio political happenings of the period. With this we come to an end of this lecture, thank you and look forward to see you in the next session.