Middle English Period  (Four major dialects & Englishness In England )

In continuation with the previous lecture, we begin looking at the Middle English period.

 

Let us look at the Four major dialects:

Coming back to some linguistic aspects, there were four major dialects during this time; south western it had emerged from the old English West Saxon, south eastern which emerged from the old English Kentish, East Midland and west midland and also Northern, so all of these dialects where in some form a continuation from the old English language from the old English dialects. We also note that the two dialects east midland and west midland, they had together emerged from the old English Mercian and in this context the east midland dialect assumes more importance because this was a one who became Chaucer’s language and since East Midland was spoken more in London and also it became the major literary vehicle of Chaucer East Midland dialect is a one from which contemporary English set has emerged as well. So this is also this 5th kind known as the northern dialect and we find that almost all of these dialects where quite different from one another it is said that even if they lived just 50 miles apart and if they spoke these different dialects they were not comprehensible to one another. So these dialects where almost like 5 different languages but and each writer was quite free to use which ever dialect that he or she preferred. And the spellings and the grammars differed on the individual kind of uses and it all depended on which spelling each author preferred to use.

In some form this is said to have got most standardized with Chaucer writing entirely in the east midland dialect and also giving it a sense of reputation and more acceptance because it was mostly spoken in the city of London.

In terms of dialectical differences, England begins to assert itself as a single national linguistic identity whose diversity does not affect in any way the evolution of language or the emergence of English into a single unit.

 

Towards more Englishness:

And towards the time of Chaucer we also find England moving towards more Englishness and this is a kind of definition and the classification which is stated on to define rest of the centuries as well.

 

And from this period, from the end of the 14th century and from the end of the 13th century onwards, we find England also seizing to be a recipient of foreign influences than Norman French influence had considerable got mitigated. England is more about native forces and the native influences, it is more organized as a nation, more conscious of her nationhood and also they had emerged to into a single racial cultural unity not taking into account the many things that differentiated them in terms of identities or in terms of linguistic and dialectical differences.

And also at this point of time we find that though in England continues to receive lot of influences from the neighboring countries and also from all kinds of cultural and linguistic imports from other languages, England begins to form her own kind of literature her own kind of religion begins to practice her own economics society and also develops their own methods of war. So that makes a nation quite distinguishable in many ways and we find the literature of the times beginning to reflect all of these elements in them.

 

Chaucer is the real starting point of English literature:

And with the advent of Chaucer which we will begin to notice in the next session, we also notice that these native influences are more pronounced, there is a more English kind of writing which begins to emerge with about which we can discuss more about without relating them with the other kind of influences. And this literary output and language of the Middle English times we find it getting more consolidated towards the end of the Middle English period and with the advent of Chaucer. And at this point it is very important to note that Anglo-Saxon language or the old English language is almost like a dead foreign language now. And we do not find language going back to the roots of Anglo-Saxon tongue from this time onwards the Norman French influence stays on, there are about 10,000 words borrowed words from French which becomes part of English language in many ways England acquires a new stature by the time Chaucer comes to the scene. So let us wind up this session by giving a brief prelude towards the next session which is going to be about the age of Chaucer, many historians feel that Chaucer is the real starting point of English literature and so much so that whatever we discuss in today’s lecture is completely overshadowed by the presence of Chaucer. And with the advent of Chaucer many later historians feel that he is the first of our really national poets, some consider him as the father of English poetry and he is generally considered as the opening moment of the English literature proper. So with this we come to an end to this today’s session and we have noted how the old English period and the Middle English period where quite important and significant in shaping the in laying the foundations of English literature and shaping how literature would be in the forthcoming centuries.

 

So we look forward to seeing you in the next session with the age of Chaucer, thank you.

Middle English period (14th century )

Middle English period (14th century ) 

In continuation with the previous lecture, we begin looking at the Middle English period.

 

Let us look at the time of Robert Mannyng of Brunne:

And the other notable figure is that of Robert Mannyng of Brunne he was also a monk as well as a chronicler and it is also said that he was perhaps part of the canon during the times that he lived. And there are two works of notable repute Handlyng Synne and Mannyng’s chronicle and Handlyng Synne is considered to be the first confessional manual in English literature. The nature of this confession could also be due to the religious tendencies that he had. And Mannyng’s Chronicle was yet another work based on history and again this was the story of England written in verse and it is said that it is extended through the reign of Edward the first. And some even feel that Mannyng’s chronicle was not very original that he had translated some myths of many old English text put together in that sense perhaps it is more less a compilation or a translation of old English text as well. And what makes Mannyng quite different from the others is that in his own works we find lot of biographical information about himself. and this is a quite surprising because many writers were not used to talking about themselves, we also noted that many writers did not even bother to sign with their own names after the work was completed. In that sense, Mannyng shows commendable insight and talking about himself his own life and his own surroundings so that you know it becomes a useful historical tract in the later times.

 

 

14th century

in the 14th century we find ourselves moving closer towards the life and work of Chaucer and this is that period which is known as the period of the alliterative revival. Alliterative revival as the term signifies it is resurgence of poetry with particular kinds of alliterations and rhymes built into it. And we do not find England going back from this period onwards; we do find that there is an increased interest and an increased attention being provided to poetry and other forms of literature. This is also the time when England prepares itself to produce greater classics, shows more attention and more interest in the other classics of Greek and Latin.

 

And the notable feature of this time is a presence of a particular anonymous poet who has come to be known as the Pearl poet or the Gawain poet based on a set of poems known as the pearl poems or the based on the major work known as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. This is also the best known Arthurian tale from the Middle English times and pearl poet or the Gawain poet he is also said to be a contemporary of Chaucer, Gower and Langland about whom we will hear more about in the next session and this century was more important because a sense of literature or sense of national unity sense of national literature is getting emerged from this period onwards. How has it become possible for us to access these old English and Middle English text, perhaps one should be very thankful to this major figure Robert Cotton, and most of these works that we talk about whether it is an old English text like Beowulf or Middle English text like Gawain and the Green knight all these manuscripts has become accessible because they are present in this particular set known as Cotton Nero A.x and this was from a personal collection of this visionary figure known as Robert Bruce Cotton, he was a quite a successful and wealthy person who lived in the later 16th and earlier 17th century who should utmost interest as a collector of medieval text, he had a lot of interest in local history and he was also noted antiquarian of his times.

 

Robert Bruce Cotton

So we find him collecting most of the original old English and Middle English manuscripts which were available and he is also said to have credited to have preserved them so that they did not go extinct in any way. In fact, about his manuscripts historians feel that his collection outshone those of the crown, the church and the Inns of the court. This is very important because as we have noted earlier most of the manuscripts and most of the literary collection was available either with the court or with the church, the monasteries where in charge of it most of the times or it was with the Inns of the court which primarily comprise with the 4 institutions which together constitute the judiciary of those times.

 

So Robert Cotton is said to have had a collection which outshone all of these collections put together and one should be very thankful to Robert Cotton for showing this kind of a passion to preserve these extended text. And his grandson at a later point was quite kind enough to donate this entire set to the British library where it is still preserved. So in many sense we also begin to note that the Middle English and the old English period is important not just because of the efforts of the people who lived just during the time, but also because of the interest that posterity began to shown in their works and also because of the sense of national heritage which became all the more important in the later centuries.

 

So preserving an old English text or a Middle English text was not just about preserving literature, but it was also about preserving a heritage which had been handed out. So in that sense one remains internally grateful to many figures such as Robert Cotton who perhaps did not lived in the said age, but contributed to the age in many different ways than the one who were living in these ages could ever even begin to think of or comprehend.

So we look forward to seeing you in the next session thank you.

Middle English Period :13th Century

In continuation with the previous lecture, we begin looking at the Middle English period.

Oxford and Cambridge

Let us look at the time when Oxford and Cambridge begin to be founded and they also emerged as major centres of culture and language. Oxford was founded in 1167 and Cambridge in 1209, so we begin to notice that these cultural artifacts and these institutions of repute where begin to be founded even as early as Middle English period.

 

Let us now take a detail look at the various kinds of writings which were available during these centuries. We note that even when we take an entire century in hand, we have maybe a couple of works worthwhile to talk about.

Ormulum by Orm

So in that sense 12th century we have two major works Ormulum by Orm. And another anonymous work The Owl and the Nightingale.

The work Ormulum, it was more religious in nature it could be loosely translated as an interpretation of the bible, it was in that sense yet another attempt to bring bible and works of the bible closer to the common people. And this was also significant in a historical sense because it trace the history of the English from the Roman Conquest onwards. So in that sense this also through glimpses of the local life and the transitions from one ruler to the other. So historians continued to look at this work with a lot of interest.

And this was also the one of the first works one of the earliest works to use poetic meter and the other work “The Owl and the Nightingale” it was structured in a quite a narrative way. And it included arguments about various things of philosophical nature things that concern daily life and even about more profound things related to life in general.

So the arguments where structure in very courtly style and also it was more allegorical than many of the other works of that period, so apart from this two major works we do not have evidence for other kinds of literature that flourish during the time apart from the oral literature of those period.

 

13th century

And in 13th century we also noticed that the literary output begins to look a little more productive little more prolific compared to the previous century.

And Layamon’s Brut which is arguably written in 1205 is perhaps the most important work other than the later works that came after the period of Chaucer. And this work was not purely literary in nature, this was in fact the historiography of Britain in the form of poem and this also draws attention to the fact that even history could be written in verse during those times. because verse was easier for people to memorize, it also gave them a way to make oral transmission easier. So verse did not have a kind of limitations that now we talk about. because nowadays we know that predominantly any kind of historiography for it to be written in verse is quite an unthinkable feet. In that sense Layamon’s Brut could be considered as very significant work which could blend in together elements of history and elements of poetry together.

King Arthur

And this is also the work in which we find the first appearance of a King Arthur, we noted in one of the previous lectures that the legends of King Arthur is what made him more popular than the historical evidence of his own existence. So we also find that Layamon’s Brut tried to link older historical traditions with modern Englishness. So in that sense we find that the common people as well as in that sense we find that there is a lot we get to know about the old English period and about the culture of those times from Layamon’s Brut. And many historians talk about Layamon’s Brut as the first voice in Middle English especially in terms of language. because in this work we find that the use of English is less conscious it is more colloquial and there is more use of idioms and proverbs. So in this sense, a more familiarity of the language could be find from the from Layamon’s Brut onwards.

 

Wace’s Arthurian Chronicles:

And another significant work of this time is Wace’s Arthurian Chronicles, he may began to note that king Arthur of the old English times, he assumes supreme importance during this period because we find him getting resurrected from all the other kinds of Laymon’s of history. And the time we also find the popularization of Arthurian tales from not just from England but also from France. we find a lot of French Ballads and French folktales talking about King Arthur’s legends and many English writers also replicate that in their own writings in English.

King Horn and Havelok the Dane

And there were also these two romances of which there is historical evidence; King Horn and Havelok the Dane, the authors of which remain unknown.

Roman de la Rose

And the Roman de la Rose or The Romance of the rose is considered as a most influential imported text of Middle English period. This was written in French, this is said to have had a profound influence on writings in English and during the 13th century. It also has said to have laid the foundation for a particular kind of writings of romance to develop later in the 14th and 15th centuries as well.

 

 

Geoffrey of Monmouth

Another very important figure of the Middle English period is that of Geoffrey of Monmouth, he said to have lived around 1100’s; the exact dates are not yet known. And the most important and notable work of Geoffrey of Monmouth is that of The history of the kings of Britain. And though this work was highly popular and many historians even rely on this work for getting a glimpse of the past the cultural and social religious past, it is also said to be highly inaccurate. But what makes this work quite distinct as a fact that he is the one who popularized the legends of King Arthur.

So Geoffrey of Monmouth we recalled even in one of the earliest sessions that he is actually he lives through the legends recreated by Geoffrey of Monmouth. In fact many of the things, many of the anecdotes attributed to king Arthur is from the works of Geoffrey of Monmouth. And he is also the one who made Excalibur popular. Excalibur being the legendary sword of King Arthur who which is said to have had some magical powers as well. So there are lots of these stories about the Excalibur of King Arthur from the Middle English period onwards. And we know that Excalibur has come to signify a lot of things about the cultural heritage of England even in the contemporary.

Middle English period- English before Chaucer:-

 

Middle English period- English before Chaucer:-

 

Hello everyone, welcome to today’s session of the course. The History of English language and Literature. In continuation with the previous lecture, we begin looking at the Middle English period.

 

The Middle English period cannot be constructed in a single seamless continuer. It needs to be divided at least into two parts;

The time before Chaucer

and the period after Chaucer.

 

If you have noticed in the title itself has got a subtitle “England before Chaucer”.

 

So, we begin with this inherent understanding that Chaucer is perhaps the most determinant figure in classifying Middle English into two and also perhaps the most important literary figure and cultural figure in the whole of a Middle English period. However, we look at the period before Chaucer trying to locate the Middle English period in a more holistic sense looking at the other literary influences which began to shape Middle English language and Middle English literature even before the arrival of Chaucer.

 

So which is this period that we classify as Middle English? The exact dates are difficult to be stated because there is no exact date or a year in which Anglo-Saxon period or the old English period came to an end and the Middle English period began. However for political convenience it is easier to note down 1066 or the year of Norman Conquest as the beginning of and the opening moment of Middle English period because politically that was the time when the Anglo-Saxon dominance came to an end and the Normans took over England. And around the same time significant changes came to be imparted into English language, so in that sense 1066 is one convenient date which can mark the inaugural moment of Middle English period. And also around 1100 it is generally considered that English began to assume an identity of its own, it began to lose its Germanic old English Germanic inflections and the current form in which we know English began to emerge and evolve from the 1100 onwards.

 

So the language that we see during a Middle English period it is not old English, it is not the modern contemporary English either, it is a form of a blend of old English and Norman English, in that sense some historians even called the language of this period as an in between language. But English during this time becomes more comprehensible and the literatures of this period is easier to identify with than with that of the old English text. And roughly as we noted earlier, the Middle English is from the 12th to the 15th century.

 

In today’s session we will be looking only at the period till the beginning of Chaucer. At this point it is also important to be stated that some historians consider Chaucer as a real starting point of English literature. So, in that sense the works that we talk about in today’s lecture, they are not of supreme importance in terms of literary analysis and literary criticism, but they only have a historical kind of interest in situating the events that leaded to the emergence of Chaucer as the most important literary figure.

 

The Major Milestones of the Middle English Period -:

 

With this understanding we move on to look at the major milestones of the Middle English period. 1066 is obviously the year of the Norman Conquest. and by 1215 we have a very politically defining moment which produced the Magna Carta about which we will be hearing a little more about shortly. And around 1250 it said that the French begins to lose its prominence to various other socio-political events some of which we will be taking a look in the later sessions.

And it is also characterized by the 100 years war which lasted 1337 to 1453, the details of which we shall be taking a look at when we talk about Chaucer’s England.

And 1362 marks a very important year in terms of the prominence that English language acquires, it is the year of Statute of Pleading, which ordered that henceforth all proceedings in the law courts should be in English instead of French. This is been also characterized by Black Death, the bubonic plague which affected not just Britain but also many parts of Europe.

And this is also significantly the era which saw the emergence of the Middle classes a very prominent figure. And it is important to note that Europe was also undergoing radical changes during the Middle English period and this was the time of the Holy Crusades as well, but we do find that England had participated only minimally in the Holy Crusades. But it is however, the literature of longing the literature of love and about the beloved who is left behind who is yawning for the soldier who is out at the war front, all of these themes get built into the literature of the times because of the influence of the whole holy Crusades as well.

It was also politically and religiously quite significant, but however since the discussions on the Holy Crusades are beyond the scope of our course, we shall just leave it at that. And also to be highlighted is the point that around this period England also outgrows the hostility between the native population and the invaders who were Norman French.

And in 1066 when the Norman French invaded Anglo-Saxon, there was a growing hostility for quite a long time. But by the end of the Middle English period we find that it is no longer about the foreign influences, it is no longer about fighting among themselves, but it is more about consolidating themselves as a nation and as a single linguistic unit.

And let us take a quick look at what this even Magna Carta is, this is important because this was very politically significant event that began to mark the ways in which England began to shape itself as a nation and also even at a later point of time when England was talking about rights and various ways in which it could negotiate between the rulers and the ruled Magna Carta was a very determining factor. So, this was the great charter of the liberties as many of us know about. And this was signed on 15 June 1215, it was drafted by the Arch Bishop of Canterbury and was agreed to by King John was the ruler of England then. And this was in fact as a result of a growing rebellion from the barons and this was assigned to make peace between highly and popular King John and group of rebel barons. So, in that sense, it is one of the earliest political negotiations that had taken place and this also had lot of implications for the commoners because it promises the protection of the church rights, it also involved the protection of barons from illegal imprisonment so on and so forth. So it also ensured that the king could not act according to his wills and fantasies, but he also had to put in place certain principles and certain and ensure that certain rights are available to the subjects to the other rulers so on and so forth.

 

And Magna Carta is supremely important and we choose to discuss this in this lecture because it became a part of English political life. And we begin to see that the literature of the times also reflected this kind of new freedom and the new secular ambience, which was getting generated in England and Magna Carta was incidentally renewed by each monarch one after the other, so in that sense it assumes supreme political and civil importance.

 

Now coming back to our main topic on Middle English literature, Middle English literature was a little more warred compare to the old English literature, we noted that old English literature was mostly about war and about religion and about the trails of daily life. but with the Middle English period we move little ahead it is occupies major certainly war literature continues to occupy a major part of literary writings, there is also religious literature in place. But in addition to this we find a new kind of literature emerging which could which could be classified as romances. we need to understand romance in a rather broad since it is not just about love literature, it is also about a Knights and their quest for courtly love and the values of chivalry that they stood for. So in that sense, romance literature was mostly about the lives of knights and kind of a adventures that they embarked upon, so it was not the romance has not yet got reduce into love life between just two ordinary people. so alongside we also find this local tradition of songs and ballads emerging.

We do not have much evidence about the kind of songs and ballads that existed during that time but mostly it was also transmitted through this oral tradition. And it is also difficult to date these ballads due to the same reasons, some are even of the opinion that these ballads were prominent even during the old English period and they were just transmitted through this oral means from one generation to the other. And some of the important and the notable ballads which were orally transmitted even after the Middle English period where the songs which later came to be known as the song of Lord Randal and some of the songs that celebrated the changing of the season.

 

So in this lecture, we shall not be discussing much about this the oral tradition or the tradition of songs and ballads we shall be focusing mostly on war literature, religious literature and the romances which prevailed during that time primarily because they were written down and they were not just based on the oral tradition.

 

And another significant factor is that most of the works where anonymous, it is not yet become quite common for them to sign the works with their own names, so in that sense no one took any kind of the ownership to the works and all literary works were considered as almost as public property. And books where very expensive during that time printing had not yet come into place and it was mostly copied manuscripts were available that was a very expensive affair and not many could afford it.

 

And London also emerges as a center of politics, center of trade and commerce and also of culture and writing. And we also notice that most of the writers who gain prominence in Middle English period they were living in London. it was also because London was the Norman capital soon after the Norman Conquest, so since London was more happening than the other parts of the country many choose to migrate to London where they continued to build the more reputable literary career over there.

University of Wits

University Wits

 2. Match List I with List II

 List I                                   List II 

 (a) George Peele                (i) Cornelia 

 (b) Robert Greene             (ii) Eupheus 

 (c) John Lyly                     (iii) The Arraignment of Paris 

 (d) Thomas Kyd                (iv) The Pinner of Wakefield

 Codes:   (a)      (b)         (c)           (d) 

        (1)   (iii)    (i)          (iv)         (ii) 

        (2)   (iii)    (ii)          (iv)         (i) 

        (3)   (iii)    (iv)         (ii)          (i) 

        (4)    (ii)    (iv)          (i)         (iii) 

Background Context: University Wits are the University Graduates from the Cambridge and Oxford. They Contributed a lot to the setting of dramatic performances and dramatic literature before the arrival of the important Dramatists such as Ben Jonson and Willian Shakespeare. The group of the University Wits consists of great Writers like Thomas Kyd, George Peele, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Nashe and Christopher Marlowe. All of them Revolves around the central sun Marlowe. These Universities men were usually actors as well as Dramatists. 

Explanation: Explanation: John Lyly, the courtier made notable contribution to the formation of English Comedy. His Comedies are romantic as well as witty. The University Wits made Definite improvement in the art of Characterisation. Lyly is best known for his romantic prose work “Euphues” that gave English Language Euphuistic Style. The comedies of GEORGE PEELE are both satirical as well as humorous. Peele made drama rich and decorative by his poetic wealth. “The Arrangement of Paris” (1584) is a pastoral play in verse which celebrates Queen Elizabeth’s Beauty and Virtue. Kyd probably begin his career as a popular playwright about 1583 and produced his most significant work “The Spanish Comedy”. He translated Torquato Tasso’s Padre de famiglia (1583) published as The Householder’s Philosophy (1588) is the only non-dramatic work attributed to Kyd and Robert Garnier’s Cornelia published as the same name in 1594. Robert Greene is considered as the foremost of the University of Wits in terms of literary output and in terms of the colourful life that he enjoyed during that time and it is said about him that “he was the publish, remained the longest and the first to leave”. He was a prolific writer, he produced over 20 works which are credited to his own name. The play George a Greene The pinner of Wakefield which provide George with his name was written in 1593 by an anonymous writer. 

Direct Answer (3) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)

Mankind I Medieval Morality Play

 1. The medieval morality play Mankind opens with a sermon by ____________. 

           

(1) Devil 

(2) Mercy 

(3) Kindred 

(4) Fellowship

Background Context: The Morality Plays were basically Didactic in purpose and mostly has personification of abstractions such as Mankind, Mercy, Peace, Good and Bad Angels etc. Morality Plays describe the lives of people facing the Temptation of the world. The plays are careful to present the Warning to the unwary that their souls are always in the peril that the devil is on the constant watch that the people must behave properly if they are to be saved. Later on the Allegories were introduced in the Morality Plays. Mankind is a short morality Play whereas Everyman is a masterpiece and one of the best example of Morality play.

Explanation: Mankind is one of the most famous Morality Play of Medieval Period. From the Title you can understand that it is an Allegory, Mankind is not an individual but it represents all of us. The Play begins with Mercy, he helps the Protagonist called Mankind with his good advice. When Mercy speaks, he presents words of GOD. Mercy doesn’t have an individual name like Thomas or Smith but he is called Mercy. Because Mercy is a Quality, which means compassion so his character is compassion. In the beginning he says my name is Mercy and I am the one who is sad for your SINS. He then praises god and warns every one against Temptation that if you commit Sin then on the last day of last Judgement GOD will send you to HELL. 

Direct Answer: (3) Mercy

 

John Bunyan's | Pilgrim's Progress

 

The Pilgrims Progress is an allegory by John Bunyan published in 1678. It was written in prison. John Bunyan was a staunch Puritan, who adopted preaching as his profession. In his autobiography he has depicted the story of his conversion. After the restoration, Bunyan was imprisoned for his licensed preaching. It was in prison that he wrote “The Pilgrims Progress” in which he gives the story of the salvation of a Christian. Bunyan was a deeply and sincerely religious minded man who loved the Bible in the most devoted manner. Emile Legoius says that Bunyan seemed to have lived with the Scriptures alone, indifferent to every production of the human mind, occupied only with the quest for means of salvation. The story of the salvation of a Christian in “The Pilgrims Progress” is set forth in the form of an allegory.

In the beginning, the dream of the author is described in which he sees Christian with a burden on his back reading in his book that the city in which he and his family are living (the city of destruction) will be shortly consumed by fire. Christian prepares to run away from the city to the celestial city-Heaven along with his wife and children. But they cannot be convinced by him and he takes to his journey alone. But his journey is not easy. His path is beset with numerous obstacles and temptations.

In part one, there is description of Christian’s journey through such places as the ‘slough of despond’, ‘the valley of shadow of death, the interpreter’s house, Vanity Fair. And soon in the course of his journey Christiane meets allegorical personages like Mr. Worldly Wiseman, faithful, giant despair, and so forth. The encounter with them signifies the difficulties lying in the way of salvation.

In part two there is a fine description of the journey of Christian’s wife Christiana and her children to the same destination. She has a vision and starts her journey in the company of her neighbour mercy, overruling the objections of people like Miss Timorous, Great Heart accompanies them as their guard and guide. He killed Giant Despair and other monsters and escorts the party safely to the Celestial City-heaven.

The simple story of “The Pilgrims Progress” is all imaginary but John Bunyan succeeds in enlivening the whole thing by his simplicity coupled with the strength of conviction. The style closely resembles in its strengths, simplicity and vividness to that of the Bible John Bunyan's “Pilgrim's Progress” has a lucidity and life likeness which even and Edmund Spenser could not attain. John Bunyan is not merely didactic but he shows a keen sense of landscape surroundings. In “The Pilgrims Progress” there are some instances of humour and social satire also.

 

Le Morte d'Arthur

King Arthur is known as one of the most popular legends of all time. There are a number of stories and pieces of literature written about King Arthur's reign. The most popular and historical story about King Arthur's death is a prose piece written by Thomas Malory an English writer entitled La Morte D'Arthur. This work was first published in 1485. Although King Arthur tried to maintain structure and order as a king betrayal by the people closest to him eventually led to his demise. Arthur was born to King Uther and a woman named Lgraine. His mother was married to another man. Arthur grew up with his foster father Sir Ector in secret. A magician named Merlin suggested it would be better if no one knew Arthur was the son of the King. Arthur served as Squire for his foster brother and eventually became King because he pulled a sword from a stone. While he was King Arthur was successful in defeating many enemies. King Arthur then decided to help others who needed assistance along with his knights of the round table. Merlin a wise magician helped Arthur in battles throughout Arthur's life. One of Arthur's best Knights Lancelot fell in love with King Arthur's wife Guinevere. Lancelot tried to resist his feelings for the Queen by going on several quests to find the Holy Grail. Lancelot was unable to resist his desire for Guinevere and continued his affair with her. This eventually led to the downfall of Arthur's Kingdom. King Arthur wanted to punish his wife and his knight for their affair and planned to burn his wife at the stake. Lancelot saved Guinevere from her death. One of Arthur's knights his son Mordred wanted to become King and encouraged King Arthur to battle Lancelot. Mordred convinced everyone that King Arthur died in battle and Mordred over took the throne. When King Arthur discovered his son's betrayal he went home to reclaim his throne. While in battle with his son Mordred King Arthur died and Mordred was also fatally wounded. After his death King Arthur's body was sent on a boat down the Isle of Avalon never to be seen again.

There are a number of Themes and Symbols in the legend of King Arthur. One theme of importance regarding the death of King Arthur is Trust. Trust is depicted in King Arthur's relationship and friendship with Lancelot his best knight and his marriage to Guinevere. Recall that Lancelot eventually betrayed King Arthur by having an affair with King Arthur's wife. Merlin is also shown as a trustworthy character because he established a trusted relationship with King Uther and King Arthur. Merlin kept Arthur's true lineage a secret and helped King Arthur throughout his life.

Betrayal is another theme represented in King Arthur's legend. Betrayal is brought forth by Lancelot's relationship with the Queen. The two people whom King Arthur trusted the most betrayed him with each other.

Deception is another theme from King Arthur's legend. King Arthur expected his wife and his best Knight to be loyal to him.

Love is also a theme in the legend of King Arthur. Love is shown in the relationship between King Arthur and Guinevere prior to her affair. And then again between Lancelot and Guinevere.

Now let's take a look at a few Symbols in this legend. King Arthur tried to maintain peace in England and among his knights as well.

The round table represents Arthur's view of fairness and equality. Arthur created the table to prevent conflict regarding ranks and feelings of importance between the Knights. The round table was a central part of King Arthur's ability to maintain stability in England and helped bring the knights together during difficult times.

The Holy Grail is an important symbol in the legend of King Arthur. Because the knights of the round table searched for the Holy Grail until they found it. The Holy Grail was used by Jesus at the Last Supper. Finding it represented achieving the highest form of purity. Sir Lancelot was not able to find the Holy Grail because his affair with Queen Guinevere was sinful and contradictory to the ideals of chivalry important during King Arthur's reign. Only three Knights Sir Bors, Sir Percival and Sir Galahad were pure enough to find the Holy Grail.

The legend of King Arthur is one of the most popular Work of medieval times.

Sir Thomas More's Utopia

 

Sir Thomas More's Utopia

 

Sir Thomas More's utopia is a major work in the history of English literature. It represents the flowering of the spirit of Renaissance in England. It was written by the great Christian humanists Sir Thomas More. Utopia was originally written in Latin and published in 1516. Erasmus supervised its printing of “utopia”. And later on it was translated into English by Ralph Robinson in 1551. The form of Thomas More's “Utopia” was influenced by the narrative of voyages as the record of the Explorer Amerigo Vespucci. It was printed in 1507. utopia is a Greek word meaning nowhere land. In this book Sir Thomas More gave the description of an imaginary kingdom of his ideals. In Utopia, Thomas More's purposes to paint a republic after his own ideals. By doing so, he wanted to expose the evils of the actual set up of his own country.

Utopia comprises two Books :-

In the first book we are told how the writer and his friend Peter Giles happened to meet a Portuguese traveller named Raphael Hythloday. Thomas More and Peter Giles accompanied him to the garden. Hythloday tells them about a country called utopia which he had happened to visit, while he was on his way back home from travel.

The description of the land covers the second part of the work. In Utopia, there is no private wealth or money. Thomas More describes the society which is very much like Marxist. In Utopia, there is no unemployment, neither poverty nor excess of wealth.

There are no wars of aggression and the utopians have no lawyers as they have no laws. The only law is conformity to love. There is great religious tolerance and only those are held guilty who deny the existence of God. the utopians glorify physical culture. According to utopians. Perfect health is the greatest of all bodily pleasure. There is no drinking, gambling, hunting and thieving. Thus, the utopians are highly moral people.

Sir Thomas More has narrated the ideal state existing in his imagination. Utopia is not merely a piece of More's idealizing imagination but a criticism of life. It represents the socialistic pattern of society and has aptly been called the first monument of modern socialism. More derives many of his ideas from Plato's Republic. Compton and Rickett commented, “Whereas Plato's Republic is an aristocratic communism Sir Thomas More's is on a democratic basis”. Utopia is a People's State with an effective government even though state controls.

The book embodies the spirit of Renaissance. Sir Thomas More criticizes fanaticism, scholasticism, the other worldliness, and the ideal of chivalry.

The word utopia was coined by Sir Thomas More it was adopted by many writers like Francis Bacon in his “New Atlantis”, William Morris “News from Nowhere” and Edward Bellamy's “Looking Backward” Jonathan Swift's “Gulliver's travel” and Samuel Butler's “Erawhon” can be called as satirical utopias.

Protagonist and Antagonist:-

The protagonist is frequently known as the hero of the story while the antagonist is the villain. The protagonist and the antagonist tend to be in conflict with one another. The protagonist is essential character in a story. This character is often referred to as the hero of the story. In many cases the story is told from this character's point of view so that the reader knows how the protagonist thinks and feels.

The antagonist is the opposing force or character who leaves the conflict against the protagonist. The antagonist works to offset whatever the protagonist does, that is good. Often the antagonist attempts to disguise himself or herself which usually builds suspense in a story. The antagonist does not have to be human. Instead it can be a force of nature such as a hurricane or tornado or even a complex problem or idea such as poverty or oppression.

The protagonist and antagonist are often complete opposite of one another. However, they can both be complex characters.

There are many classic examples of heroes and villains that fill these roles in fairy tales.

For example,

In Cinderella the Evil stepmother and stepsisters are very cruel to Cinderella. Cinderella is the protagonist while the stepmother and stepsisters are antagonists.

In Hansel and Gretel: There is a witch who resides in a home, made of gingerbread and candy. She uses the sweets to lure Hansel and Gretel into her home so that she can eat the children. Hansel and Gretel are the Protagonist and the witch is the Antagonist.

In The Wizard of Oz: The Wicked Witch of the West is constantly causing conflict for the main character Dorothy. Dorothy is the Protagonist of the tale and the witch is the Antagonist.

In Jack and the Beanstalk: A young boy named Jack climbs a magic Beanstalk into the sky and meets an angry giant. Jack is the Protagonist while the Giant is the Antagonist.

Take a moment to read this section from a story and try to identify a protagonist and an antagonist keep in mind the traits of each character: Molly has been up all night practicing words for the spelling bee. She was still so nervous even though she knew she was well prepared. When she bumped into Lindsay, however, she felt her stomach sink. “Oh, look,” Lindsay said, “there goes the worst speller in the whole school.” Lindsay pushed past Molly and continued down the hall. “See you after school, loser,” Lindsay said. Molly frowned but went right back to practicing.

Who is the protagonist and who is the antagonist in this paragraph?

Molly is the protagonist this section features her point of view as the reader here's. How she was up late and that she was nervous. it is also clear that she is the focus of the passage. The antagonist therefore is Lindsay. She is the opposing force to Molly and is clearly working to offset her. just seeing Lindsay makes Molly stomach sink. It is also clear that Lindsay is Molly's rival as both are competing in the spelling bee.

In review we trying to identify the Protagonist and Antagonist in a story. Think about which character is central to the plot. who is the central character in the Story this is the Protagonist. The character or force that is acting against the central character is the antagonist. The antagonist is the opposing force or character who leads the conflict against the protagonist. In most cases the good character is the protagonist and the bad character is the antagonist.

Allegory

What is an Allegory?

It's a literary term an allegory is actually the use of characters, events or ideas in a novel or literary text that are used to illustrate or show a larger concept something that's not directly said but it's implied rather now this larger concept that I just mentioned can relate to a number of different things for instance. These larger concepts can pertain to something political or it could be something religious, it could be historical or social. Either way whatever the larger concept is directly pertaining to the whole point of the allegory is that the author is using the text to provide his or her own commentary on the subject matter in other words. The author is investing and putting their own opinion into the literary text. Now in order to identify this you have to realize that the allegory is almost like a hidden message. It's the author's own hidden message that they want to get across in the novel. 

And as you read the book or whatever you're reading you'll eventually start to recognize subtle hints that will lead toward allegory or the true message that the author is trying to get across.  So once you reach the end you should have a better understanding of the allegory.

Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe

Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe

The novel titled Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe paints a realistic picture of the problems faced by the 17th century society. Narrating in the problems of Moll the problems that women faced during that period. Moll Flanders recounts the adventures of a lusty and strong-willed woman who is compelled from earliest childhood to make her own way in the 17th century England.

The plot is true in its vigorous style. The novel traces the fall and rise of a beautiful woman who was born in Newgate Prison. Because of her determination to be someone other than a servant she sought to marry a wealthy man. She married many times. Her fear of poverty led her to commit many criminal acts and she came to be known as the richest thief in London. Finally captured she was taken to Newgate Prison where she confessed her crimes to her spiritual advisor which helped her death sentence to be reduced to transportation to the American colonies, there she spent the rest of her life. In order to know more about this novel we need to know a little about the history during the Augustine Age.

English literature written during the rule of Queen Anne, George the first and second is referred to as the Augustine literature.

Neoclassical Age The Age Of Reason-

The term Augustine Age is born out of self-conscious imitation of writers contemporary to Augustus such as Homer, Virgil, Cisero and Horace by many writers of this age. 

It is for the same reason that this era in English literature is also referred to as the neoclassical age and the age of reason. English society at this time saw the emergence of powerful middle-class. The pre-eminence of the middle class made it an age of tolerance, moderation, refined manner and sweet reasonableness and common sense. This was an age of verbal skill. One of the key words for the entire period is wit. The upper-class courtiers as well as everyone with money we're supposed to be verbally skilled and comfortable with brilliant verbal repartee and clever talking. The wealthy sent their sons on the grand tour of Europe to acquire the wit, the daughters of the affluent homes were taught just enough French and Italian words to drop into their conversations, to make them appear sophisticated. The emphasis on looking right and acting right meant that this was an age of decorum. Great value was placed on Manners, on virtues like self-control and above all balance. 

One was not supposed to be outrageous, one was supposed to show control so literature takes a pedantic bent on this period meaning to show its readers how to think, to talk, to behave and to interact in the world. Writers viewed themselves as the shapers of good taste and took the responsibility very seriously. In novel writing this is an age of conversation. this epistolary form as a story told in a collection of letters. But it is also enhanced by self-reflection. This was an age when there was acceptability for self-publicizing. They saw this was not as a conceit but as self-awareness believing that self-examination was a requirement for the morally correct person. Hence the high interest in autobiography, biography, journals, Diaries, memories, publication of Diaries, collections of letters and other reflections on the self. 

Daniel Defoe-

Let us now move to the next segment of this lesson where we really need to know about the author that is Daniel Defoe. Along with Richardson, Dafoe is considered the founder of the English novel. Daniel Defoe was a prolific writer who could and would turn his hand to almost any topic. He produced some 200 works of nonfiction prose.

In addition, took 2,000 short essays in periodical publications several of which he also edited. He has been called as one of the greatest journalists and the father of journalism. To many of his contemporaries he was a man who sold his pen to the political party in office and so was lacking in integrity. He was not taken seriously by literary men though his skill at writing was acknowledged. Defoe was not a gentleman born or raised he was an outsider. Being a Puritan the son of a butcher and a suspected government spy. He changed his name from foe to Defoe and what a coach with his court of arms on its door with the aspiration of being a gentleman. Throughout his life Defoe wrote about commercial projects. But his own business ventures failed and left him with large debts. This burden shadowed the remainder of his life. Defoe was one of the first to write stories about believable characters in realistic situations using simple prose. He achieved literary immortality when in April 1719 he published Robinson Crusoe, a travelogue which was based on the memories of voyages castaways such as Alexander Selkirk who spent four years and four months on his Island. In the remaining years Defoe concentrated on books rather than pamphlets. And at the age of 62 he published Moll Flanders.

Defoe choice of the protagonist in Moll Flanders reflected his interest in the female experience. Moll is born in Newgate where her mother is under sentence of death for theft. Her sentence is commuted to transportation to Virginia. The abandoned child is educated by a gentlewoman. Moll suffers romantic disillusionment when she is ruined at the hands of a cynical male seducer. She becomes a woe and a thief but finally she against the status of a gentlewoman to the spoils of a successful colonial plantation. Defoe died of lethargy in the Year 1731 at Moorefield and was buried under the name of Mr. Dubow Cripplegate. He was deeply in debt and in hiding from a creditor.

The beginning of novel in England-

A novel is a long prose fiction with a plot, some characters and the plot coming to a logical conclusion through these characters. England is commonly viewed as the birthplace of modern novel. In England novel writing came into the forefront only in the late 17th and early 18th century because with the growth of the middle class by the middle of the 17th century not only could more people read but they also could spend money on literature.

The neoclassical novel can be divided in the following categories:

First the travelogues stories relating to the adventures of a Voyager or traveller through the unknown as in the case of Robinson Crusoe by Defoe and Gulliver's Travels by Swift.

The other is the epistolary novel in which the story develops and resolves itself through the means of letters and their replies as in Pamela by Richardson.

Lastly there is the Picaresque ‘The Adventures of a rogue hero’ who wanders from place to place and encounters many adversaries who are also lawbreakers as in Defoe’s Moll Flanders.

Structure-Moll Flanders

The structure of Moll Flanders is episodic rather than an organized plot where Moll is a female version of the Picaro. Whose adventures are summed up in the novel's full title the fortunes and misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders who was born in Newgate and during a life of continued variety for threescore years. Besides her childhood was 12 years over, five times a wife, 12 years thief, eight years a transported felon in Virginia, at last grew rich lived honest and died a penitent. There was no fixed tenant about normal writing. And so in all neoclassical novels a contrast between taste and rules can be seen until fielding forged a theory of novel writing in his Joseph Andrews. Although Defoe was looked down upon by the intellectual establishment represented by Pope and Swift. Later developments in literary history have shown that it was he who would define the literature of a new age and not the so called Augustine's. As the novel remains the dominant literary form of the 20th century Robinson Crusoe and Moll Flanders are still widely read.

Picaresque Novel-Moll Flanders

We shall now discuss about the picaresque novel. the picaresque style in novel writing was conceived in Spain and was adopted by England. the Spanish word ‘Picaresca’ came from ‘Picaro’ which in English can mean rogue, adventurer, rapscallion. In a picaresque novel the story is told in a series of loosely connected Adventures of a rogue protagonist and adventures in a morally corrupt society. However unlike the idealistic night event hero. However the Picaro is a cynical and immoral rascal who if given a half a chance would rather live by his wits than by honourable work. Most Picaresque novels incorporate several defining characters like satire, comedy, social criticism.

The first characteristics of Picaresque novel is that it narrates the ups and downs of an adventurous life accompanied by some spectacular situation changes. It is usually written in first-person narration with an autobiographical ease of storytelling by a protagonist seeker on an episodic question for renewal or justice. Moll Flanders by Defoe recounts the adventures of a robust and a strong-willed woman who is compelled from earliest childhood to make her own way in the 17th century England.

The plot is true Picaresque style. the novel employs a first-person narrator recounting the adventures of a low-class adventurer who moves from place to place from one social environment to another an effort to survive. The novel is the chronicle of Moll’s full lifespan narrated by her in her seventeenth year with wonder and acceptance. In one sense moll is the product of a Puritan society turn to worldly zeal the ones dedicated servant of God turned to the worship of wealth, power, and success. Born to a criminal mother in Newgate Prison left with no resources but her needle she constantly seeks wealth or a wealthy husband to free herself from bondage of poverty and the temptations of crime. Nevertheless, the management of marriages the danger of thievery fascinates moll and when she finally becomes wealthy she cannot stop disguising herself for new crimes disdaining the humble trade of seamstress. When she finally settles into respectability it is with a gentleman not a merchant. Her husband is a rather pretentious somewhat sentimental highwayman who is not much good as a farmer but is a considerable sports man. Moll is the representative of a simple middle-class mercantile figure of the late 17th century.

Women in the 17^th century England-

We also need to know about the role of women and the problems that they face during the 17th century in England. Through this novel we get to see about the women and their problems. Moll Flanders paints a realistic picture of the 17th century society narrating in the problems of Moll those that the women faced in that society. Moll begins her life as the daughter of a transported convict without any system to protect them the children of convicts those days were thrown into the world with no prospects other than starvation or the same life of crime as their parents. Moll was very lucky to be taken in by the parish a 17th century law did not compel the parishes to take care of penniless children who were not born there. As a young girl Moll is forced to serve as a maid. maids were paired very little but they were fed sheltered and clothed. The fact that women were not able to support themselves legally always underlies moll decisions that she needs to get married. When she is widowed at 48 too old to hope to marry again she has no choice but to begin a life of crime. In the 17th century stealing was profitable because things were handmade and very expensive. Before the industrialization, production took an immense amount of labour and though labour was very cheap the amount which was required to make an object made theft very profitable. 

In the 17th and the 18th centuries prostitution was widespread and was the other occupation available to women. This was the result of a social system in which per women could not make an honest living and if they were seduced they were fallen women who had to be prostitutes. The punishments for theft and prostitution were very harsh. A thief could be transported or hanged for stealing a watch or a length of cloth. transportation to Virginia was considered a terrible punishment even though transported convicts could eventually hope to be freed and settled in their own land. In the 17th century pregnant prostitutes were chased from parish to parish since the authorities would not want to have to take charge of the unwanted infants. They could take refuge in houses like that of Molls governess who used to bribe the parish so they wouldn't bother her. And wanted children could be given to families to be taken care of along with a sum of money. However these children were often neglected and the rates of child mortality was very high. Perhaps because of the high rates of child mortality some mothers guarded against becoming too attached to their children. Other familial ties were also less strong. People married for money rather than for love.

Social class in the 17^th Century:-

We now move to the next segment of this lesson where we shall discuss the importance of social class in 17th century in England. Moll longs for upward mobility in a time and a place that won't allow it. 17th century England had strict rules about who you are and what you can do with your life. These rules help to explain Molls downward spiral into prostitution and thievery. She is trapped in a society into prostitution that gives her few options after all. In eighteenth-century England people were very conscious of their social positions and marriages between the wealthy and the poor were not common. Because she was born of the lower-class and social mobility was not easy to achieve in the 18th century. Moll desperately wanted to be a part of the upper-class. But despite her best efforts she did not succeed. Although she learned to dance and speak French as well as the other girls and was even better singer than the others as shown in the court. Moll simply wasn't one of them. Marriages of convenience were the norm.

A marriage of convenience is one in which each party is marrying for some reason other than love. Quite often it is to improve one's social status of financial gain. For Example, a young man who has a title but no money might marry a young lady with money but no title to upgrade his social position or increase his wealth. Therefore molls first lover and eldest son set to inherit his father's estate has an attitude towards marriage that was quite typical at that time as the sister notes for the market is against. And if a young woman have beauty, birth, breeding, wit, sense, manners, modesty and all these to an extreme yet if she have not money, ‘she's nobody’. Throughout her life moll married many different men in hopes of achieving her goal of upper-class status. But each of those marriages drastically failed leaving her to follow in her mother's footsteps as a thief. Though she acquired great amounts of wealth and material goods through stealing she was never anything more than a thief. Through all her misdeeds and struggles mall saves her money and that frugality pays off when she arrives in the new world with the full savings account. In the New World having money matters the most and people who work hard can improve their status no matter where they come from.

Summary of the novel- Moll Flanders

We now move to the next section of this lesson where we would know about the summary of the novel with special reference to childhood and marriages. Moll Flanders is the pseudonym of the heroine who does not wish to reveal her true identity. She was born in Newgate Prison to a mother who was transported to Virginia shortly after childbirth. Around the age of three she ran away from the gypsies with whom she had been living. A parish took her in and she was given to the care of a nurse who brought her up to the age of eight. Then she was allowed to remain with her nurse instead suing and spinning. Although she should have gone to service. When her nurse died Moll was 14 she joined the household of the mayor and learned the same lessons as the daughters of the house. The older son of the house seduced her. Then the younger one fell in love with her also and wanted to marry her. The older one convinced Moll to marry the younger one and she lived as his wife until his death a few years later.

Moll then married a gentleman Draper with fine manners. He was agreeable but spent her money and soon went bankrupt. He broke out of jail and left England forever. After a long time Moll married a gentleman from Virginia pretending to be richer than she was. He took her to Virginia where she met his mother who turned out to be Molls mother as well. This discovery made Moll leave her brother, husband and children after several years of marriage. Back in England she became acquainted with a modest gentle whose wife was insane. They lived as lovers for several more years until he fell gravely ill. After he recovered he repented and did not want to see moll anymore. Moll decided to go not since living was cheaper outside of London. But before going she took care of financial business by meeting a sober gentleman who agreed to take care of her money. He was on the lookout for a virtuous wife and decided to divorce his unfaithful wife and marry Moll when she turned from the North. Moll thought this would be a good idea if she didn't find anything better in Lancashire. The friend took Moll to meet someone she thought to be a wealthy Irish gentleman. He an agreeable and handsome man courted and married her. Then it turned out that he had married for her money and she had married him for his. They loved each other but decided that it was practical to apart.

To conclude a novel like Moll Flanders which enthusiastically recounts all kinds of misdeeds was in great danger of being condemned on moral grounds. If Defoe could reinvent it as a useful and edifying work he knew he could profit from it.