Middle English Period :13th Century

In continuation with the previous lecture, we begin looking at the Middle English period.

Oxford and Cambridge

Let us look at the time when Oxford and Cambridge begin to be founded and they also emerged as major centres of culture and language. Oxford was founded in 1167 and Cambridge in 1209, so we begin to notice that these cultural artifacts and these institutions of repute where begin to be founded even as early as Middle English period.

 

Let us now take a detail look at the various kinds of writings which were available during these centuries. We note that even when we take an entire century in hand, we have maybe a couple of works worthwhile to talk about.

Ormulum by Orm

So in that sense 12th century we have two major works Ormulum by Orm. And another anonymous work The Owl and the Nightingale.

The work Ormulum, it was more religious in nature it could be loosely translated as an interpretation of the bible, it was in that sense yet another attempt to bring bible and works of the bible closer to the common people. And this was also significant in a historical sense because it trace the history of the English from the Roman Conquest onwards. So in that sense this also through glimpses of the local life and the transitions from one ruler to the other. So historians continued to look at this work with a lot of interest.

And this was also the one of the first works one of the earliest works to use poetic meter and the other work “The Owl and the Nightingale” it was structured in a quite a narrative way. And it included arguments about various things of philosophical nature things that concern daily life and even about more profound things related to life in general.

So the arguments where structure in very courtly style and also it was more allegorical than many of the other works of that period, so apart from this two major works we do not have evidence for other kinds of literature that flourish during the time apart from the oral literature of those period.

 

13th century

And in 13th century we also noticed that the literary output begins to look a little more productive little more prolific compared to the previous century.

And Layamon’s Brut which is arguably written in 1205 is perhaps the most important work other than the later works that came after the period of Chaucer. And this work was not purely literary in nature, this was in fact the historiography of Britain in the form of poem and this also draws attention to the fact that even history could be written in verse during those times. because verse was easier for people to memorize, it also gave them a way to make oral transmission easier. So verse did not have a kind of limitations that now we talk about. because nowadays we know that predominantly any kind of historiography for it to be written in verse is quite an unthinkable feet. In that sense Layamon’s Brut could be considered as very significant work which could blend in together elements of history and elements of poetry together.

King Arthur

And this is also the work in which we find the first appearance of a King Arthur, we noted in one of the previous lectures that the legends of King Arthur is what made him more popular than the historical evidence of his own existence. So we also find that Layamon’s Brut tried to link older historical traditions with modern Englishness. So in that sense we find that the common people as well as in that sense we find that there is a lot we get to know about the old English period and about the culture of those times from Layamon’s Brut. And many historians talk about Layamon’s Brut as the first voice in Middle English especially in terms of language. because in this work we find that the use of English is less conscious it is more colloquial and there is more use of idioms and proverbs. So in this sense, a more familiarity of the language could be find from the from Layamon’s Brut onwards.

 

Wace’s Arthurian Chronicles:

And another significant work of this time is Wace’s Arthurian Chronicles, he may began to note that king Arthur of the old English times, he assumes supreme importance during this period because we find him getting resurrected from all the other kinds of Laymon’s of history. And the time we also find the popularization of Arthurian tales from not just from England but also from France. we find a lot of French Ballads and French folktales talking about King Arthur’s legends and many English writers also replicate that in their own writings in English.

King Horn and Havelok the Dane

And there were also these two romances of which there is historical evidence; King Horn and Havelok the Dane, the authors of which remain unknown.

Roman de la Rose

And the Roman de la Rose or The Romance of the rose is considered as a most influential imported text of Middle English period. This was written in French, this is said to have had a profound influence on writings in English and during the 13th century. It also has said to have laid the foundation for a particular kind of writings of romance to develop later in the 14th and 15th centuries as well.

 

 

Geoffrey of Monmouth

Another very important figure of the Middle English period is that of Geoffrey of Monmouth, he said to have lived around 1100’s; the exact dates are not yet known. And the most important and notable work of Geoffrey of Monmouth is that of The history of the kings of Britain. And though this work was highly popular and many historians even rely on this work for getting a glimpse of the past the cultural and social religious past, it is also said to be highly inaccurate. But what makes this work quite distinct as a fact that he is the one who popularized the legends of King Arthur.

So Geoffrey of Monmouth we recalled even in one of the earliest sessions that he is actually he lives through the legends recreated by Geoffrey of Monmouth. In fact many of the things, many of the anecdotes attributed to king Arthur is from the works of Geoffrey of Monmouth. And he is also the one who made Excalibur popular. Excalibur being the legendary sword of King Arthur who which is said to have had some magical powers as well. So there are lots of these stories about the Excalibur of King Arthur from the Middle English period onwards. And we know that Excalibur has come to signify a lot of things about the cultural heritage of England even in the contemporary.

Middle English period- English before Chaucer:-

 

Middle English period- English before Chaucer:-

 

Hello everyone, welcome to today’s session of the course. The History of English language and Literature. In continuation with the previous lecture, we begin looking at the Middle English period.

 

The Middle English period cannot be constructed in a single seamless continuer. It needs to be divided at least into two parts;

The time before Chaucer

and the period after Chaucer.

 

If you have noticed in the title itself has got a subtitle “England before Chaucer”.

 

So, we begin with this inherent understanding that Chaucer is perhaps the most determinant figure in classifying Middle English into two and also perhaps the most important literary figure and cultural figure in the whole of a Middle English period. However, we look at the period before Chaucer trying to locate the Middle English period in a more holistic sense looking at the other literary influences which began to shape Middle English language and Middle English literature even before the arrival of Chaucer.

 

So which is this period that we classify as Middle English? The exact dates are difficult to be stated because there is no exact date or a year in which Anglo-Saxon period or the old English period came to an end and the Middle English period began. However for political convenience it is easier to note down 1066 or the year of Norman Conquest as the beginning of and the opening moment of Middle English period because politically that was the time when the Anglo-Saxon dominance came to an end and the Normans took over England. And around the same time significant changes came to be imparted into English language, so in that sense 1066 is one convenient date which can mark the inaugural moment of Middle English period. And also around 1100 it is generally considered that English began to assume an identity of its own, it began to lose its Germanic old English Germanic inflections and the current form in which we know English began to emerge and evolve from the 1100 onwards.

 

So the language that we see during a Middle English period it is not old English, it is not the modern contemporary English either, it is a form of a blend of old English and Norman English, in that sense some historians even called the language of this period as an in between language. But English during this time becomes more comprehensible and the literatures of this period is easier to identify with than with that of the old English text. And roughly as we noted earlier, the Middle English is from the 12th to the 15th century.

 

In today’s session we will be looking only at the period till the beginning of Chaucer. At this point it is also important to be stated that some historians consider Chaucer as a real starting point of English literature. So, in that sense the works that we talk about in today’s lecture, they are not of supreme importance in terms of literary analysis and literary criticism, but they only have a historical kind of interest in situating the events that leaded to the emergence of Chaucer as the most important literary figure.

 

The Major Milestones of the Middle English Period -:

 

With this understanding we move on to look at the major milestones of the Middle English period. 1066 is obviously the year of the Norman Conquest. and by 1215 we have a very politically defining moment which produced the Magna Carta about which we will be hearing a little more about shortly. And around 1250 it said that the French begins to lose its prominence to various other socio-political events some of which we will be taking a look in the later sessions.

And it is also characterized by the 100 years war which lasted 1337 to 1453, the details of which we shall be taking a look at when we talk about Chaucer’s England.

And 1362 marks a very important year in terms of the prominence that English language acquires, it is the year of Statute of Pleading, which ordered that henceforth all proceedings in the law courts should be in English instead of French. This is been also characterized by Black Death, the bubonic plague which affected not just Britain but also many parts of Europe.

And this is also significantly the era which saw the emergence of the Middle classes a very prominent figure. And it is important to note that Europe was also undergoing radical changes during the Middle English period and this was the time of the Holy Crusades as well, but we do find that England had participated only minimally in the Holy Crusades. But it is however, the literature of longing the literature of love and about the beloved who is left behind who is yawning for the soldier who is out at the war front, all of these themes get built into the literature of the times because of the influence of the whole holy Crusades as well.

It was also politically and religiously quite significant, but however since the discussions on the Holy Crusades are beyond the scope of our course, we shall just leave it at that. And also to be highlighted is the point that around this period England also outgrows the hostility between the native population and the invaders who were Norman French.

And in 1066 when the Norman French invaded Anglo-Saxon, there was a growing hostility for quite a long time. But by the end of the Middle English period we find that it is no longer about the foreign influences, it is no longer about fighting among themselves, but it is more about consolidating themselves as a nation and as a single linguistic unit.

And let us take a quick look at what this even Magna Carta is, this is important because this was very politically significant event that began to mark the ways in which England began to shape itself as a nation and also even at a later point of time when England was talking about rights and various ways in which it could negotiate between the rulers and the ruled Magna Carta was a very determining factor. So, this was the great charter of the liberties as many of us know about. And this was signed on 15 June 1215, it was drafted by the Arch Bishop of Canterbury and was agreed to by King John was the ruler of England then. And this was in fact as a result of a growing rebellion from the barons and this was assigned to make peace between highly and popular King John and group of rebel barons. So, in that sense, it is one of the earliest political negotiations that had taken place and this also had lot of implications for the commoners because it promises the protection of the church rights, it also involved the protection of barons from illegal imprisonment so on and so forth. So it also ensured that the king could not act according to his wills and fantasies, but he also had to put in place certain principles and certain and ensure that certain rights are available to the subjects to the other rulers so on and so forth.

 

And Magna Carta is supremely important and we choose to discuss this in this lecture because it became a part of English political life. And we begin to see that the literature of the times also reflected this kind of new freedom and the new secular ambience, which was getting generated in England and Magna Carta was incidentally renewed by each monarch one after the other, so in that sense it assumes supreme political and civil importance.

 

Now coming back to our main topic on Middle English literature, Middle English literature was a little more warred compare to the old English literature, we noted that old English literature was mostly about war and about religion and about the trails of daily life. but with the Middle English period we move little ahead it is occupies major certainly war literature continues to occupy a major part of literary writings, there is also religious literature in place. But in addition to this we find a new kind of literature emerging which could which could be classified as romances. we need to understand romance in a rather broad since it is not just about love literature, it is also about a Knights and their quest for courtly love and the values of chivalry that they stood for. So in that sense, romance literature was mostly about the lives of knights and kind of a adventures that they embarked upon, so it was not the romance has not yet got reduce into love life between just two ordinary people. so alongside we also find this local tradition of songs and ballads emerging.

We do not have much evidence about the kind of songs and ballads that existed during that time but mostly it was also transmitted through this oral tradition. And it is also difficult to date these ballads due to the same reasons, some are even of the opinion that these ballads were prominent even during the old English period and they were just transmitted through this oral means from one generation to the other. And some of the important and the notable ballads which were orally transmitted even after the Middle English period where the songs which later came to be known as the song of Lord Randal and some of the songs that celebrated the changing of the season.

 

So in this lecture, we shall not be discussing much about this the oral tradition or the tradition of songs and ballads we shall be focusing mostly on war literature, religious literature and the romances which prevailed during that time primarily because they were written down and they were not just based on the oral tradition.

 

And another significant factor is that most of the works where anonymous, it is not yet become quite common for them to sign the works with their own names, so in that sense no one took any kind of the ownership to the works and all literary works were considered as almost as public property. And books where very expensive during that time printing had not yet come into place and it was mostly copied manuscripts were available that was a very expensive affair and not many could afford it.

 

And London also emerges as a center of politics, center of trade and commerce and also of culture and writing. And we also notice that most of the writers who gain prominence in Middle English period they were living in London. it was also because London was the Norman capital soon after the Norman Conquest, so since London was more happening than the other parts of the country many choose to migrate to London where they continued to build the more reputable literary career over there.

University of Wits

University Wits

 2. Match List I with List II

 List I                                   List II 

 (a) George Peele                (i) Cornelia 

 (b) Robert Greene             (ii) Eupheus 

 (c) John Lyly                     (iii) The Arraignment of Paris 

 (d) Thomas Kyd                (iv) The Pinner of Wakefield

 Codes:   (a)      (b)         (c)           (d) 

        (1)   (iii)    (i)          (iv)         (ii) 

        (2)   (iii)    (ii)          (iv)         (i) 

        (3)   (iii)    (iv)         (ii)          (i) 

        (4)    (ii)    (iv)          (i)         (iii) 

Background Context: University Wits are the University Graduates from the Cambridge and Oxford. They Contributed a lot to the setting of dramatic performances and dramatic literature before the arrival of the important Dramatists such as Ben Jonson and Willian Shakespeare. The group of the University Wits consists of great Writers like Thomas Kyd, George Peele, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Nashe and Christopher Marlowe. All of them Revolves around the central sun Marlowe. These Universities men were usually actors as well as Dramatists. 

Explanation: Explanation: John Lyly, the courtier made notable contribution to the formation of English Comedy. His Comedies are romantic as well as witty. The University Wits made Definite improvement in the art of Characterisation. Lyly is best known for his romantic prose work “Euphues” that gave English Language Euphuistic Style. The comedies of GEORGE PEELE are both satirical as well as humorous. Peele made drama rich and decorative by his poetic wealth. “The Arrangement of Paris” (1584) is a pastoral play in verse which celebrates Queen Elizabeth’s Beauty and Virtue. Kyd probably begin his career as a popular playwright about 1583 and produced his most significant work “The Spanish Comedy”. He translated Torquato Tasso’s Padre de famiglia (1583) published as The Householder’s Philosophy (1588) is the only non-dramatic work attributed to Kyd and Robert Garnier’s Cornelia published as the same name in 1594. Robert Greene is considered as the foremost of the University of Wits in terms of literary output and in terms of the colourful life that he enjoyed during that time and it is said about him that “he was the publish, remained the longest and the first to leave”. He was a prolific writer, he produced over 20 works which are credited to his own name. The play George a Greene The pinner of Wakefield which provide George with his name was written in 1593 by an anonymous writer. 

Direct Answer (3) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)

Mankind I Medieval Morality Play

 1. The medieval morality play Mankind opens with a sermon by ____________. 

           

(1) Devil 

(2) Mercy 

(3) Kindred 

(4) Fellowship

Background Context: The Morality Plays were basically Didactic in purpose and mostly has personification of abstractions such as Mankind, Mercy, Peace, Good and Bad Angels etc. Morality Plays describe the lives of people facing the Temptation of the world. The plays are careful to present the Warning to the unwary that their souls are always in the peril that the devil is on the constant watch that the people must behave properly if they are to be saved. Later on the Allegories were introduced in the Morality Plays. Mankind is a short morality Play whereas Everyman is a masterpiece and one of the best example of Morality play.

Explanation: Mankind is one of the most famous Morality Play of Medieval Period. From the Title you can understand that it is an Allegory, Mankind is not an individual but it represents all of us. The Play begins with Mercy, he helps the Protagonist called Mankind with his good advice. When Mercy speaks, he presents words of GOD. Mercy doesn’t have an individual name like Thomas or Smith but he is called Mercy. Because Mercy is a Quality, which means compassion so his character is compassion. In the beginning he says my name is Mercy and I am the one who is sad for your SINS. He then praises god and warns every one against Temptation that if you commit Sin then on the last day of last Judgement GOD will send you to HELL. 

Direct Answer: (3) Mercy

 

John Bunyan's | Pilgrim's Progress

 

The Pilgrims Progress is an allegory by John Bunyan published in 1678. It was written in prison. John Bunyan was a staunch Puritan, who adopted preaching as his profession. In his autobiography he has depicted the story of his conversion. After the restoration, Bunyan was imprisoned for his licensed preaching. It was in prison that he wrote “The Pilgrims Progress” in which he gives the story of the salvation of a Christian. Bunyan was a deeply and sincerely religious minded man who loved the Bible in the most devoted manner. Emile Legoius says that Bunyan seemed to have lived with the Scriptures alone, indifferent to every production of the human mind, occupied only with the quest for means of salvation. The story of the salvation of a Christian in “The Pilgrims Progress” is set forth in the form of an allegory.

In the beginning, the dream of the author is described in which he sees Christian with a burden on his back reading in his book that the city in which he and his family are living (the city of destruction) will be shortly consumed by fire. Christian prepares to run away from the city to the celestial city-Heaven along with his wife and children. But they cannot be convinced by him and he takes to his journey alone. But his journey is not easy. His path is beset with numerous obstacles and temptations.

In part one, there is description of Christian’s journey through such places as the ‘slough of despond’, ‘the valley of shadow of death, the interpreter’s house, Vanity Fair. And soon in the course of his journey Christiane meets allegorical personages like Mr. Worldly Wiseman, faithful, giant despair, and so forth. The encounter with them signifies the difficulties lying in the way of salvation.

In part two there is a fine description of the journey of Christian’s wife Christiana and her children to the same destination. She has a vision and starts her journey in the company of her neighbour mercy, overruling the objections of people like Miss Timorous, Great Heart accompanies them as their guard and guide. He killed Giant Despair and other monsters and escorts the party safely to the Celestial City-heaven.

The simple story of “The Pilgrims Progress” is all imaginary but John Bunyan succeeds in enlivening the whole thing by his simplicity coupled with the strength of conviction. The style closely resembles in its strengths, simplicity and vividness to that of the Bible John Bunyan's “Pilgrim's Progress” has a lucidity and life likeness which even and Edmund Spenser could not attain. John Bunyan is not merely didactic but he shows a keen sense of landscape surroundings. In “The Pilgrims Progress” there are some instances of humour and social satire also.

 

Le Morte d'Arthur

King Arthur is known as one of the most popular legends of all time. There are a number of stories and pieces of literature written about King Arthur's reign. The most popular and historical story about King Arthur's death is a prose piece written by Thomas Malory an English writer entitled La Morte D'Arthur. This work was first published in 1485. Although King Arthur tried to maintain structure and order as a king betrayal by the people closest to him eventually led to his demise. Arthur was born to King Uther and a woman named Lgraine. His mother was married to another man. Arthur grew up with his foster father Sir Ector in secret. A magician named Merlin suggested it would be better if no one knew Arthur was the son of the King. Arthur served as Squire for his foster brother and eventually became King because he pulled a sword from a stone. While he was King Arthur was successful in defeating many enemies. King Arthur then decided to help others who needed assistance along with his knights of the round table. Merlin a wise magician helped Arthur in battles throughout Arthur's life. One of Arthur's best Knights Lancelot fell in love with King Arthur's wife Guinevere. Lancelot tried to resist his feelings for the Queen by going on several quests to find the Holy Grail. Lancelot was unable to resist his desire for Guinevere and continued his affair with her. This eventually led to the downfall of Arthur's Kingdom. King Arthur wanted to punish his wife and his knight for their affair and planned to burn his wife at the stake. Lancelot saved Guinevere from her death. One of Arthur's knights his son Mordred wanted to become King and encouraged King Arthur to battle Lancelot. Mordred convinced everyone that King Arthur died in battle and Mordred over took the throne. When King Arthur discovered his son's betrayal he went home to reclaim his throne. While in battle with his son Mordred King Arthur died and Mordred was also fatally wounded. After his death King Arthur's body was sent on a boat down the Isle of Avalon never to be seen again.

There are a number of Themes and Symbols in the legend of King Arthur. One theme of importance regarding the death of King Arthur is Trust. Trust is depicted in King Arthur's relationship and friendship with Lancelot his best knight and his marriage to Guinevere. Recall that Lancelot eventually betrayed King Arthur by having an affair with King Arthur's wife. Merlin is also shown as a trustworthy character because he established a trusted relationship with King Uther and King Arthur. Merlin kept Arthur's true lineage a secret and helped King Arthur throughout his life.

Betrayal is another theme represented in King Arthur's legend. Betrayal is brought forth by Lancelot's relationship with the Queen. The two people whom King Arthur trusted the most betrayed him with each other.

Deception is another theme from King Arthur's legend. King Arthur expected his wife and his best Knight to be loyal to him.

Love is also a theme in the legend of King Arthur. Love is shown in the relationship between King Arthur and Guinevere prior to her affair. And then again between Lancelot and Guinevere.

Now let's take a look at a few Symbols in this legend. King Arthur tried to maintain peace in England and among his knights as well.

The round table represents Arthur's view of fairness and equality. Arthur created the table to prevent conflict regarding ranks and feelings of importance between the Knights. The round table was a central part of King Arthur's ability to maintain stability in England and helped bring the knights together during difficult times.

The Holy Grail is an important symbol in the legend of King Arthur. Because the knights of the round table searched for the Holy Grail until they found it. The Holy Grail was used by Jesus at the Last Supper. Finding it represented achieving the highest form of purity. Sir Lancelot was not able to find the Holy Grail because his affair with Queen Guinevere was sinful and contradictory to the ideals of chivalry important during King Arthur's reign. Only three Knights Sir Bors, Sir Percival and Sir Galahad were pure enough to find the Holy Grail.

The legend of King Arthur is one of the most popular Work of medieval times.

Sir Thomas More's Utopia

 

Sir Thomas More's Utopia

 

Sir Thomas More's utopia is a major work in the history of English literature. It represents the flowering of the spirit of Renaissance in England. It was written by the great Christian humanists Sir Thomas More. Utopia was originally written in Latin and published in 1516. Erasmus supervised its printing of “utopia”. And later on it was translated into English by Ralph Robinson in 1551. The form of Thomas More's “Utopia” was influenced by the narrative of voyages as the record of the Explorer Amerigo Vespucci. It was printed in 1507. utopia is a Greek word meaning nowhere land. In this book Sir Thomas More gave the description of an imaginary kingdom of his ideals. In Utopia, Thomas More's purposes to paint a republic after his own ideals. By doing so, he wanted to expose the evils of the actual set up of his own country.

Utopia comprises two Books :-

In the first book we are told how the writer and his friend Peter Giles happened to meet a Portuguese traveller named Raphael Hythloday. Thomas More and Peter Giles accompanied him to the garden. Hythloday tells them about a country called utopia which he had happened to visit, while he was on his way back home from travel.

The description of the land covers the second part of the work. In Utopia, there is no private wealth or money. Thomas More describes the society which is very much like Marxist. In Utopia, there is no unemployment, neither poverty nor excess of wealth.

There are no wars of aggression and the utopians have no lawyers as they have no laws. The only law is conformity to love. There is great religious tolerance and only those are held guilty who deny the existence of God. the utopians glorify physical culture. According to utopians. Perfect health is the greatest of all bodily pleasure. There is no drinking, gambling, hunting and thieving. Thus, the utopians are highly moral people.

Sir Thomas More has narrated the ideal state existing in his imagination. Utopia is not merely a piece of More's idealizing imagination but a criticism of life. It represents the socialistic pattern of society and has aptly been called the first monument of modern socialism. More derives many of his ideas from Plato's Republic. Compton and Rickett commented, “Whereas Plato's Republic is an aristocratic communism Sir Thomas More's is on a democratic basis”. Utopia is a People's State with an effective government even though state controls.

The book embodies the spirit of Renaissance. Sir Thomas More criticizes fanaticism, scholasticism, the other worldliness, and the ideal of chivalry.

The word utopia was coined by Sir Thomas More it was adopted by many writers like Francis Bacon in his “New Atlantis”, William Morris “News from Nowhere” and Edward Bellamy's “Looking Backward” Jonathan Swift's “Gulliver's travel” and Samuel Butler's “Erawhon” can be called as satirical utopias.